NOTA ILMU : THE MALAY EMPIRE AND THE LOST MALAY KINGDOM

BARUS

• Ancient port city located on the west coast of Sumatera. 
• A Regional trade centre from around the 7th century AD, also know by other names, namely Fansur and possibly Barusai. 
• The Greek geographer Ptolemy refeered to it s Barousai in the 2nd century AD. 
• Barus is famous for its high-quality camphor (kapur barus), a prized commodity for both trade and religious ceremonies. 

BERUAS

• Many historians believe Beruas rose from the ashes of Gangga Nagara, an ancient Kingcom mentioned in the Sejarah Melayu. 
• When Gangga Nagara fells to Raja Rajendra Chola I in the 11th century, the remnants of that civilisation eventually reorganised into the Kingdom of Beruas. 
• Batu Aceh tombstone found in the area is the most significant evidence of the Kingdom, belonging to Sultan Muzafar Shah. 
• The Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annald) mentions that the King of Beruas once visited the Malacca Sultanate to pay respects and seek protection from rival neighbors. 

BIDOR

• Believed to be part of the Gangga Negara Kingdom based on the historical artifacts that were discovered. 
• The statue of Avalokitesvara Buddha found in Bidor, Perak in 1936 proves the existence of a settlement or Kingdom in this area.

BUJANG VALLEY

• A sprawling historical complex and has an area of approximately 224 sq km with the discovery of a set of new iron smelting sited, Sungai Batu Site. 
• H.G. Ouaritch-Wales: the person who began research on the Bujang Valley in Kedah since the 1840s. 29 temple sites discovered at that time prove that there was a famous Kingdom that received traders from all over Asia.

CHAMPA

• A powerful Maritime Kingdom of the Austronesian Cham people that flourished for over 1,700 years ago in now central and souther Vietnam. 
• The Cham were a seafaring people of Malayo-Polynesian who migrated to mainland Southeast Asian from Borneo and other part of the Malay Archipelago. 
• Peter Bellwood: There was a civilization on the coast of Vietnam, namely the Sa Huynh Civilization around 1000 BC to 100 BC (M.A.Ishak, 2009) which was the beginning of the Malay Champa Civilization.

CHEN-LA

• Existed in mainland Southeast Asia from 6th-9th century CE, founded by Bhavavarman, after overthrowing the Kingdom of Funan.
• The successor of the Funan Kingdom,  Chen-la reached its peak power under King Isanavarman I (616-637 CE). 
• Han Cey Inscription: Inscribed Stone in Cambodia dated to the 6th century AD, carved by Bhavavarman II, King of Chenla. There is a verse "Mala Malayu iva Malayam Raja" which means "King Mala from the Malay State".

CHIH-TU

• Chih-Tu means "Red Earth" in Chinese, mentioned in the history of China in the Sui Dynasty Annals in 607 CE.
• Believe to have existed from 100 BC to 6th Century AD. 
• Chih Tu Guo Ji: Chinese records produced from the Sui Dynasty describe Chih-Tu as part of the Kingdom of Funan.
• Chih-tu (Chinese) or Raktamaritika (Sanskrit). The name "Red Earth" refers to the reddish, lateritic soil found in parts of Kelantan and southern Thailand. In Malay, the modern district of Tanah Merah in Kelantan carries this name.
• Buddhagupta Inscription: or Mahanavika Buddhagupta, found in Seberang Perai, Penang provides a key link to the Kingdom of Chuh-Tu. It was discovered in 1834 by Captain James Low of the East India Company. 
• The Sungai Mas Inscription: mentions Raktamrttika (Sanskrit) which means Red Land, which has contributed to the study of the past history of the Ch'ih Tu Kingdom.
• Liang Shu and Sui Shu: Chinese historical text from the Liang and Sui Dynasties do contain notes on Chih-Tu that describe its people as similar to the Funan. It was located in Nan Hai (South Sea). 
• Faxian's Note: A Buddhist monk who, upon returning from India to seek knowledge, stopped at Chih-Tu.
• Kuo Chi's account: The Chih-Tu kingdom has a large gold industry.
• Taiping Huanyu Ji: stated the distance between Chih Tu and Srivijaya was within 1,500 li. 
• Nurazil Zakaria in his book "Tanah Kala: Sejarah Negeri Kelantan" states that the king of Srivijaya, Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanaga, was a descendant of the Chih-Tu Kingdom.
• Tatsuo Hoshino, in his work "The Kingdom of Red Earth (Chitu Guo)," points out that while later Chinese sources like the Jiu Tangshu (Old Tang Annals) mention Chi Tu, these references describe an older political reality that had already changed.

DHARMASRAYA

• Also known as Bhumi Malayu or Suvarnnabhumi according to Padang Roco Inscription. 
• Pamalayu Expedition: a military diplomacy expedition carried out by the Singhasari Kingdom during the reign of King Kertanagara from 1275-1293 against the Malay Kingdom, also known as the Dharmasraya Kingdom.
• It was a Buddhist polity centered on the Batang Hari river system in central Sumatera, in what is now Jambi and West Sumatera provinces of Indonesia. 
• In 1286, The Javanese Singhasari King Kertanegara sent a statue of Amoghapasa Lokeshvara to the ruler of Dharmasraya, Tribhuwanaraja Mauliwarmmadewa. 
• Grahi Inscription : found in Chaiya, Southern Thailand, described details of a Malay King from the Dharmasraya Kingdom. 

FOLO-AN : 

• A place mentioned in the 13th century records of Zhao Rugua. Scholars have debated whether this was in Terengganu or Kedah. 
• Chinese historical text "Lingwai Daida" by Zhou Qufei, published in 1178 CE, mention the Kingdom of Fo-lo-an which historian widely associate with the area of modern Kuala Berang in Terengganu.
• It is said to have existed in the Kuala Berang district, Terengganu in the 12th century AD (Paul Wheatley).

FU-KAN-TU-LU

• Ch'ien han shu (Book of Han) : Completed around 80 CE - chapter 28 describes a sea route that links to a port on the eastern side of the Malay Peninsula (Shen-li) and port on the western side (Fu-kan-tu-lu). 
• Chinese record during the time of Emperor Wu-Ti (141-87 BCE) of the Han Dynasty describing a sea route to the eastern coast of India, The text mentions both Shen-li dan Fu-kan-tu-lu on the Malay Peninsula. 
• Historians including Professor Wang Gung Wu have associated Fu-kan-tu-lu with Kedah Tua, a major ancient trading center is what is now the Bujang Valley. 

FUNAN

• Another old Malay Kingdom located in the Mekong River Valley. Its existence is found in Chinese sources. In the 6th-7th century AD, the Kingdom of Funan split Into the Kingdom of Chenla.
• Chinese records mention this Kingdom as Funan or B'iu-nam and its existence is known as early as the first century AD.
• L.P.Briggs (1999) > The Kingdom of Funan is mentioned in the Chinese Records around 221 - 280 AD > it is possible that the Kingdom of Funan disappeared around 627 AD.
• D.G.E. Hall (1979): the Funan people are identified as being of the Malay family.
• The report of K'ang T'ai (977-983 AD) quoted by T'Pai P'ing Yu Lan - the first king of Funan was Houen-Chen or his Sanskrit name Kaundinya.
• Records of the Chin Dynasty also mention the Kingdom of Funan.

GANGGA NEGARA

• Also knows as the Kingdom of Beruas, a semi-legendary Hindu-Malay Kingdom located in Beruas, Perak. 
• According to Malay Annals, Gangga Negara was founded as early as 2nd century CE. 
• Captain James Low was among the first Westeners to conduct significant research of Gangga Negara, carried out in 1849. 
• H.G. Quaritch Wales, reviewed James Low research and agreed that Gangga Negara did exist but could not pinpoint its capital. 
• Tom Pires: a Portuguese apothecary wrote in the Suma Oriental in 1512 did mentioned Beruas (Gangga Negara) as a vibrant and active trading port in the early 16th century. 
• Ptolemy in the book "Geographike Huphegesis" around 150 AD mentions a place called Coconagara located in Avrea Cheronesvs (Golden Peninsula referring to Malaya).
• Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Statue found in Bidor, Perak in 1936 - supporting the existence of the ancient Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Gangga Negara. 

JOHOR-RIAU

• The Sultanate of Johor-Riau, a major Malay Kingdom that emerged in the 16th century as the successor to the Malacca Sultanate following it falls to the Portuguese in 1511.
• Founded in 1528 by Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II, the son of Sultan Mahmud Shah of Malacca. 

KAILUKARI : historically debated and likely functional location mentioned by Ibn Battuta, a 14th century Moroccan explorer. Some historian have speculated Kailukari might refer to Kuala Krai in Kelantan, given the region's historical connection to powerful female rulers, Che Siti Wan Kembang. 

KALAH / KEDAH TUA

• Ancient Hindu-Buddhist maritime trading port and kingdom located in what is now the Malaysian State of Kedah. 
• The Arabic sources often refers to the location as Kalah or Qalah, which is widely identified by scholars as ancient Kedah. 
• Kedah Tua was known as Kalah in Arabic, Kadaram or Kalagam in in Tamil texts, Chieh-Cha or Ka-Cha in Chinese sources. 
• Ibn Khurdadhbih (820-912 CE) : mentioned a port called Kalah as an important stopping point on the Arab-China maritime trade route (Kitab al-Masalik wa'l Mamalik) around 850 CE. 
• Al-Mas'udi: Arab Historian and geographer documented that ships from the Persian Gulf and India regularly stopped at the port of Kalah (Kedah) on the Malay Peninsula. 
• Ibnu Muhalhal (941 AD) : mentions Kalah in "Risalah" and in "Al-Risalah al-Thaniyah" provides a description of Kalah as a significant trading center. 
• Abu Zayd al-Hasan: described Kalah as a major trading hub for goods like gold, camphor, spices and tin. 
• Abu Dulaf al-Khazraji: a 10th century geographer, described Kalah (Kedah) as a significant entrepot and various historical accounts confirm it was a trading centre for numerous goods. 
• Pattinappalai : part of the Sangam Literature (2nd-3rd century CE), mentions a place called Kalagam (or Kazhagam), which is widely identified by scholars as ancient Kedah in modern Malaysia. 
• Yijing: Refer South Kedah as Jiecha, a frequent stopover for ships on the maritime route connecting China and India. It also a stopover for the Monks traveling to and from India. Yijing confirms that by the end of 7th century, South Kedah was under control of Srivijaya Empire.
• Buddhagupta Inscription: Found in Seberang Perai dated 5th century CE - confirms Kedah's role as an international transit hub. It was discovered by Captain James Low of the East India Company. 
• Hugh Low: conducted archaelogical study in 1840 - finding Hindu and Buddhist temple ruins and inscription in the Bujang Valley area .
• The name al-Qal'a al-Rumi (or Qal'a) mentioned by classical Islamic Scholars like Al-Biruni and Al-Kindi, linked to centers of iron and shipbuilding technology, is strongly associated with the region now known as Old Kedah in Malaysia, specifically the Sungai Batu Archaelogical Complex in the Bujang Valley.  

KALASAPURA

• Ancient Malay Kingdom that existed since the Han Dynasty.
• Among the earliest Malay Kingdoms that existed in written records since the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 BC).
• In the Kathasaritsagara (Ocean of the Streams of Story) written by Kashmiri poet Somadeva in the 11th century, there is a city called Kalasapura, notable city featured in the adventures of Indian merchants and travelers exploring the "Eastern Islands" (Southeast Asia).It was mentioned in Book IX (Alankaravati) Chapter 54 where a merchant Samudrasura arrived in the city of Kalasapura. 
• According to Wen-Hsien T'ung K'ao, a Chinese encyclopedia compiled by Ma Tuan-lin, the King of Kalasapura named Pu Yueh Chieh Mo sent an envoy to China in 662 AD. It was documented under the name Ko-lo-she-fen, a significant port on the Malay Peninsula. 

KANDIS 

• Wikipedia: Kandis Kingdom
• A legendary kingdom said to be the oldest in Sumatera, Indonesia.
• Sources like the Negarakretagama, an old Javanese poem from 1365, identify Kandis as one of the territories under the Majapahit Empire. 

KOTA GELANGGI 

• Wikipedia: Kota Gelanggi
• A limestone cave complex in Jerantut, Pahang, Malaysia. 
• Considered a lost city by some and a myth by others. 
• Dudley Francis Ameliu Hervey : British Resident of Malacca (1882-1893) claim to have sighted the Kota Gelanggi in 1881. However,there is no confirm evidence to support his claim. 
• John Anderson in his book "Mission to the East Coast of Sumatra" in 1826 did mentioned about an ancient stone city in Johor. However, it was not confirmed whether it is Kota Gelanggi. 
• Gerald Gardner (1884-1964) A traveler who claimed to have seen Kota Gelanggi in Johor.
• Richard Olaf Winstedt once visited Kota Gelanggi in Johor in 1920, taken by the Orang Asli.

KOTA GRAHI

• A city-stated located on the Malay Peninsula, specifically in what is now southern Thailand. It is widely believed that Grahi is the ancent name for Chaiya, a town in Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand. 
• It existence is primarily known through a significant archaelogical artifact, the Grahi Inscription, dated 1183 CE, records the story of a ruler named Mahasenapati Galanai from Grahi.

KOTA HULU TEMBELING

• Hulu Tembeling is mentioned in British colonial records as a region rich in gold and ore.
• Several limestone cave sites in Hulu Tembeling contain pottery, bead and old iron artefacts.
• The Linehan Report (1930s) : authored by William Linehan, noted the presence of former earthen ramparts and building remains in the river area.

KOTA JOHOR LAMA

• The last fort after the fall of Malacca in 1511.
• Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II (1528-1564) founded the Sultanate of Johor and made Kota Johor Lama his strongest administrative center.
• The city was famous for its trade in black pepper, tin and spices.
• The Portuguese fleet under the command of Andre Furtado de Mendonca launched a massive attack on the city.

KOTA JUGRA

• On the banks of the Langat River stands an old city that was the early administrative center of the Selangor Sultanate.
• Made a Royal City by Sultan Abdul Samad (1857-1898) and the administrative center of Selangor.
• Historical relics such as the Tomb of Sultan Abdul Samad and the Alaeddin Mosque, built in 1905.
• Oral stories from local residents say there is a tunnel and a secret passage, but this has not been proven archaeologically.

KOTA KANDIS

• Early Malay city in the Hulu Sungai Batanghari, West Sumatra. Believed to have existed as early as 1 BC or 1 CE. 
• Believed to be the earliest center of the Malay Kingdom before the rise of Srivijaya.
• Its name appears in the Tambo Minangkabau and local oral texts.
• Some historians associate it with the Ancient Malay Kingdom before the 7th century.

KOTA KUALA KEDAH

• Built around 1602 AD by Sultan Sulaiman Shah II
• A trading port and gateway that protected Alor Setar and the interior of Kedah.

KOTA SAYONG PINANG

• Mentioned in 16th century Portuguese records involves Dom Estevao da Gama (son of Vasco da Gama) who led a fleet up to Johor River and Sayong Pinang which was protected by the Sultan's forces. 
• It emerged after the Fall of the Malay Kingdom of Malacca in 1511, as an important base for Johor in an effort to deter external attacks.

KUALA SELINGSING

• Ancient Port of Perak, on Pulau Kelumpang, at the mouth of the Selinsing River near Kuala Kurau, Perak.
• One of the most important archaeological sites in Malaysia.
• Excavations have uncovered glass beads and semi-precious stones from India, Tang Dynasty ceramics (China), Vietnamese beads and foreign metal objects - signs of trade links across India, China and the Malay Archipelago.

LAMURI

• A maritime kingdom in Northern Sumatera, near modern-day Banda Aceh, Indonesia.
• Existed at least the 9th century to 16th century and was a crucial trading hub between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. 
• It was mentioned by Tom Pires in Suma Oriental in the early 16th Century, often spelled Lambri or Ramni. 
• Marco Polo: mentioned in the 13th century noting it was a place where people were "idolaters" but some were starting to convert. 
• Zheng He's voyages also stopped there, recording it as Nan-po-li.

LANGKASUKA

• Wikipedia: Langkasuka
• Ancient Hindu-Buddhist kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula, with its territory spanning across southern Thailand, believed to have existed from the 2nd to 15th century. 
• Regarded as one of the earliest polities in Southeast Asia. 
• Kedah Annals : the kingdom was founded by Merong Mahawangsa. 
• Liang Dynasty Record: (502-557) -  Chinese records refer the kingdom as "Lang-ya-xiu". 
• Wang Dayuan: author of the "Daoyi Zhilue" (Description of the Barbarians of the Isles), mention a place with a name similar to "Long-ya-xi-jao" during the Yuan Dynasty. 
• H.G. Quaritch Wales, W.Linehan and Prof. Liang Liji: all contributed to the complex historical debate surrounding the location of the ancient of Langkasuka. 
• The Langkasuka kingdom is mentioned in the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, a classical Malay manuscript that recounts the history of the ancient Kedah kingdom. In the hikayat, it is narrated that Langkasuka was the first kingdom established by King Merong Mahawangsa.
• Yijing (I-Tsing) : a Buddhist monk and traveler - he did mentioned three Chinese monks who lived in Langkasuka (Lang-jia-shu) on the Malay Peninsula. 
• Liangshu: (Book of Liang), compiled during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), is a crucial source  on the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka. It refers the Kingdom as "Lang-ya-xiu".
• The kingdom of Langkasuka was mentioned in the Javanese poem Negarakretagama. 
• The work of Scholars like Paul Wheatley, Gabriel Ferrand and Roland Braddell, accepted the location of the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka is on the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula, specifically the modern-day Pattani region of southern Thailand. 
• The Wu-pei-chih nautical charts, from the Ming Dynasty, also situated "Lang-hsi-chia" to the south of Songkhla (Senggora) and north of Kelantan. 
• Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai: Langkasuka was destroyed around 1370. 
• T'ung Tien: Chinese Encyclopedia > compiled by Du You in the early 9th century AD, contains records from earlier Chinese traders and officials confirming the existence and location of the Langkasuka Kingdom. 
• The Tanjore Inscription dating from 1030 AD did mentions the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka by the name Ilangasogam, commissioned ty the Chola King, Rajendra Chola I.  
• Zhu fan zhi: the 13th century Song Dynasty work > written by Zha Rukuo (1224-1228), documents the existence of Langkasuka referring to it as Ling-ya-si-jia.  

LUKUT

• Wikipedia:Lukut
• Near Port Dickson, this fort was opened around 1815 by Raja Busu, a Bugis descendant of Selangor.
• The tin wealth led to a conflict between Chinese miners and Raja Busu's administration in 1834.
• The fort was rebuilt by Raja Jumaat.

MATARAM

• Wikipedia : Mataram Kingdom
• A Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th - 11th centuries. 
• Established by King Sanjaya the kingdom was ruled by the Shailendra Dynasty and later Ishana Dynasty. 

MELAKA: Refer : Hj Zulheimy Maamor : The Malacca

MUARA JAMBI

• The ancient Malayu Kingdom, flourished in what is now Jambi Province, Indonesia.
• The kingdom was a significant Buddhist center of learning and a rival to the powerful Srivijaya empire. 
• Chinese Monk Yijing visited the area in the 7th century, where he studied Sanskrit texts before traveling to India's renowned Nalanda University. 
• The site was first noted by a British Officer, S.C. Crooke in the 1820s and was later partially excavated by Dutch archaelogists. 

PALEMBANG

• Lost City of Srivijaya, on the banks of the Musi River, South Sumatra.
• First mentioned in the Kedukan Bukit inscription (683M) found in Palembang.
• Became the center of Buddhism, trade and science.
• I-Tsing Account, a Chinese traveler, mentions Palembang as a famous place of Buddhist study in Southeast Asia.
• This city was attacked by Rajendra Chola from South India in 1025M.
• Now the impression of this city has almost disappeared.

PAN PAN

• A small Hindu kingdom that existed on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula between 3rd-7th centuries CE. 
• Historian believed the kingdom was located in what is now modern-day Thailand and Malaysia. 
• Jiu Tang Shu: the Chinese text > suggests the kingdom was near the Kra Isthmus, bordered by Langkasuka to the south and Tun Sun to the north. 
• Western researchers like George Coedès and H.G. Quaritch Wales mentioned the Kingdom of Pan Pan. They were among the earliest European scholars to systematically study the "Indianized states" of Southeast Asia, using historical records—primarily Chinese texts—to reconstruct the region's ancient history.
• Hsu Yun Tsiao: Chinese-Singaporean historian did theorise that the Kingdom of Pan Pan was located in the vicinity of Pranburi, which is present-day Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, Thailand. 

PATTANI

• Wikipedia: Patani Kingdom
• A powerful historical Malay sultanate in Southeast Asia, centered in what is now southern Thailand and northern Malaysia. 
• Pattani's peak was during the late 16th-17th centuries under the reign of four successive queens, Raja Hijau, Raja Biru, Raja Ungu and Raja Kuning. 
• Founded by Phya Tu Intira or Phya Tu Nakpa.
• According to Hikayat Patani,the kingdom of Pattani was preceded by an inland Islamic Kingdom called Kota Mahligai. 
• The 17th century Portuguese cartographer and historian, Emanual Godinho de Eredia noted that Islam was already established in Patani and Pahang by his time. 

REMAN

• Wikipedia: Kingdom of Reman
• A semi-independent Malay Kingdom that existed in the northern Malay Peninsula from 1810 - 1902. 
• Founded in 1810 by Tuan Tok Nik Tok Leh, a nobleman from Pattani. 
• This government was dissolved by Siam in 1902 and handed over the Reman Kingdom to the Perak State Government.

SAIBURI: The name of the Malay Kingdom given by Siam, the Malay name is Teluban or Selindung Bayu. It is said to have existed in 1816 during the separation of the Patani region into 7 small states. Wikipedia : Sai Buri District

SAILENDRA: 

• Wikipedia: Shailendra Dynasty
• The name of this dynasty was found engraved on the Copper Inscription in Nalanda, India. According to Arab sources, the Sailendra Kingdom (called Zabag or Java) ruled Sribuza (Srivijaya), Kalah (Kedah) and Ramni (possibly in Sumatra).
• Known as "Kings of the Mountain," the Sailendras left a significant legacy of remarkable Mahayana Buddhist art and architecture, including the massive stupa of Borobudur, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

SENGGORA

• Also known as Singora was a short-lived but powerful Malay-Muslim port City and Kingdom in the early 17th century. 
• Located on the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula in present-day Thailand, the procursor of the modern city of Songkhla. 
• Founded in 1605 by a Persian merchant named Dato Mogol (Datuk Muzaffar). 

SETUL MAMBANG SEGARA: The Malay kingdom on the northern coast of the Malay Peninsula, formed in 1808, which is now Satun in Thailand. It was dissolved by Siam in 1916. Wikipedia: Kingdom of Setul Mambang Segara

SINGHASRI: The Malay kingdom was founded by Ken Arok, located in East Java between 1222 and 1292. This kingdom was later replaced by the Majapahit Kingdom. Wikipedia: Singhasari

SRIVIJAYA

• A powerful Buddhist empire shose influence extended across the Malay Peninsula and much of the western Indonesia Archipelago. It was important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th to 11th century AD. 
• Existed between 671 CE - 1025 CE and later conquered by Majapahit Empire in 1293 CE. 
• The earliest reference of Srivijaya is through I-Tsing (Yijing), a Tang Dynasty monk who visited Srivijaya in 671 AD. 
• Kedukan Bukit Inscription :Dated 16 June 681 AD -  the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears. 
• Hj Zulheimy Maamor : The Srivijaya

TAN TAN :

• In the 6th and 7th centuries AD, there was a Tan-Tan Kingdom believed to be Kelantan. It is said that the Tan-Tan Kingdom once sent envoys with gifts to the Liang Dynasty government in China.
• In "The Book of Liang" - a record of the Liang Dynasty (502-557M) it is recorded that the Tan Tan Kingdom sent envoys to send letters and gifts to China.
• O.W. Wolters: This kingdom is located in the Java Islands.
• Paul Wheatley : in "The Golden Khersonese" states that the Tan Tan Kingdom is located in Besut, Terengganu.
• Tong Dian : Tang Dynasty History Book > Description of the Tan Tan Kingdom in Volume 188, Part 4).

TAMBRALINGA:

• Wikipedia : Tambralinga
• The name Tambralinga is taken from the Grahi Inscription.
• In the Tanjore Inscription, Tambralinga is referred to as Madamalingam.
• In Malay texts, Tambralinga is known as Ligor.
• Located north of Langkasuka in the 11th-13th centuries AD and was the center of Theravada Buddhism. Its most famous king was Dharmaraja Chandrabanu (1230-1294).
• O.W. Wolters in "Early Indonesian Commerce: The Origin of Srivijaya", the Malay Peninsula was known to the Greeks in the first century AD. The Tambralinga Kingdom once sent envoys to China around 616 AD during the Tang Dynasty.
• Sung Shih (Song Dynasty) > History of the Song Kingdom, the name of the Tambralinga Kingdom appeared with the name Tan Ma Ling or Tan Mei Lieou.

TEMASEK :

• Founded by Sang Nila Utama, Temasek is Singapore today.
• Wang Ta Yuan : Chinese records in 1349 AD mention Temasik (Singapore).

TING CHIA LU: Appears in Wang-Ta-Yuan's record of Tao-I-chih-Lioh which was compiled in 1349. Probably Terengganu.

TUN SUN:

• Kra Isthmus Malay Kingdom. There is a record of the existence of this Kingdom in the Liang Dynasty.
• There is a record of the Liang Dynasty, China.
• Prof. Wang Gungwu wrote about Tun-Son @ Tun Sun @ Dun Xun. Tun-Son is recorded in Chinese records dating back to the 3rd century AD and was a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula which is now southern Thailand. Prof. Gungwu specifically mentioned that there were 10,000 people living in Tun-Son.

Reference: 

1. Paul Whetley - The Golden Khersonese (1961)
2. R.O. Winstedt - A History of Johore (1932)
3. O.W. Wolters : Early Indonesian Commerce (1967)
4. Dr. Quaritch Wales : 'Indian Act and Letters' Vol. IX No. 1
5. Gabrial Ferrand : L'Empire Sumatranais de Sriwijaya (1922).
6. Barbara & Leonard Andaya - A History of Malaysia (1982)
7. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman - Archaelogy in Malaysia (1998)
8. John N.Miksic : Ancient Southeast Asia (2016)
9. George Coedes : The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (1968).
10. Buyong Adil - Sejarah Perak (1971) / Sejarah Selangor (1971).
11. Al-Mas'udi : Muruj adh-Dhahab - abad ke-10 (terjemahan)
12. Nasha Rodziadi Khaw : Sungai Batu: Tapak Arkeologi Terpenting di Asia Tenggara, USM Press, 2017.
13. Stephen Chia : The Bujang Valley and Early Civilisation in Southeast Asia" - Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 2012.
14. Mokhtar Saidin : Pusat Penyelidikan Arkeologi Global, USM. 
15. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi - Arkeologi dan Sejarah Kesultanan Johor Lama (1990).
16. Suzuki Takashi: "History of Srivijaya" .
17. Inskripsi Kedukan Bukit (583M).
18. FB - Kota Melayu yang hilang
19. Zulheimy Maamor : Nota Alam Melayu: Kerajaan-Kerajaan Melayu Terawal.
20. Zulheimy Maamor: Nota: Arkeologi di Malaysia. Penemuan Artifak, Prasasti, Candi-Candi dsb.

Updated:

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

Lembah Keramat, KL

4 Disember 2025: 6.33 a.m