NAN MADOL - CAPITAL OF SAUDELEUR DYNASTY

Nan Madol served as the absolute ceremonial, religious, and political capital of the Saudeleur Dynasty. This highly stratified chiefdom united the roughly 25,000 people of Pohnpei Island in modern-day Micronesia. Constructed directly on top of a coral reef flat, this massive stone city thrived as a centralized powerhouse from around 1100 to 1628 CE.

The Rise and Structure of the Saudeleur Dynasty

• Legendary Origins: The first organised government to unite the entire island of Pohnpeian, ruling from approximately 1100 to 1628 CE. 
• Pohnpeian oral history credits twin sorcerers, Olisihpa and Olosohpa, with building the city by levitating enormous basalt rocks using a flying dragon. Olosohpa eventually married a local woman and established the ruling lineage. 
• Centralization of Power: The Saudeleurs utilized Nan Madol to control potential political rivals. They forced regional chiefs and high-status nobles to reside within the city, preventing rebellions in their home districts. 
• The "Venice of the Pacific": The complex spans nearly 100 artificial islets linked by an intricate network of tidal canals. It was built using colossal basalt columns and coral fill without any modern machinery. 
• Religious Center: The rulers derived their legitimacy from the native Thunder God, Nahn Sapwe. Rituals often involved sacred marine entities, such as dedicating turtle sacrifices to an oracle moray eel. 

Life in the Stone City

• Elite Isolation: The stone compounds were reserved strictly for the ruling elite, priests, and their servants. Commoners lived on the main island. 
• Logistical Dependence: Because Nan Madol lacked a natural source of fresh water or agricultural land, the Saudeleurs relied completely on daily tributes of food and water brought from the mainland by canoe. 
• Functional Zoning: The city was split into two key sectors. Madol Powe (Upper Nan Madol) handled mortuary and religious practices—anchored by the grand royal tomb of Nandauwas. Madol Pah (Lower Nan Madol) served as the primary administrative sector housing the royal palace at Pahn Kadira. 

Tyranny, Climate Stress, and Fall

Over several centuries, the initially benevolent dynasty devolved into severe tyranny, demanding unsustainable amounts of food and labor from its subjects. Recent scientific data also shows that intense El Niño and La Niña climate cycles raised sea levels and brought violent ocean surges, severely battering the seawalls and overwhelming the city's infrastructure. 

Discontent reached a breaking point around 1628 CE. A legendary warrior named Isokelekel led an invasion from the nearby island of Kosrae and overthrew the last Saudeleur tyrant. Isokelekel instituted a new, decentralized ruling system called Nahnmwarki, which modern Pohnpeian chiefs still trace their lineage to today. The difficult-to-maintain islets were progressively abandoned back to nature shortly thereafter. 

CONNECTION BETWEEN SAUDELEUR DYNASTY AND THE MALAY

The connection between the ancient city of Nan Madol (located in Pohnpei, Micronesia) and the Malay people is rooted entirely in their shared Austronesian heritage, linking them through language, ancestral seafaring migrations, and cultural traits. While they are separated by thousands of kilometres, both cultures trace back to the same prehistoric roots. 

1. Shared Linguistic Ancestry

The most definitive link between the builders of Nan Madol and the Malay people is their language. 

• The Austronesian Tree: The Pohnpeian language (spoken by the builders of Nan Madol) and the Malay language both belong to the Austronesian language family. 
• Malayo-Polynesian Subgroup: Both languages fall under the Malayo-Polynesian branch. Because of this, they share ancient cognates (root words) relating to nature, navigation, and core family structures. 

2. The Great Maritime Migrations

Both groups are descendants of the world's greatest prehistoric navigators. 

• The Out-of-Taiwan Theory: Around 3,000 to 4,000 years ago, Austronesian-speaking seafaring populations migrated southward from East Asia.
• The Split: One branch migrated into Island Southeast Asia, establishing the populations that eventually became the Malayic and western Indonesian groups. Another branch ventured eastward across the open Pacific using advanced outrigger canoes, eventually colonising Micronesia and building the monumental structures of Nan Madol. 

3. Societal and Cultural Parallels

As cousin cultures branching from a single source, the Saudeleur Dynasty of Nan Madol and early Malay kingdoms shared several distinct cultural characteristics: 

• The Kava Culture: Smarthistory notes that artifacts at Nan Madol show heavy ritual processing of kava. While the Malay world shifted toward other customs over time, early Austronesian botanical and ceremonial traditions share structural roots. 
• Highly Stratified Chiefdoms: Nan Madol functioned as a highly centralized elite centre designed to control the population. This social complexity mirrors the hierarchical, coastal-oriented power structures of early Malay polities (like Srivijaya) that relied heavily on maritime trade, networks of canals, and artificial modifications to coastal geography. 

References:

1. Wikipedia: Saudeleur Dynasty
2. Wikipedia : Nan Madol .
3. UNESCO : Nan Madol: Ceremonial Centre of Eastern Micronesia.
4. Wattpad : Lemurians & Atlanteans - Suatu ketika dahulu... kita adalah Lemurians  dan Altanteans.
5. Zulsegamat : Temui Semula Kerajaan-Kerajaan Melayu Nusantara yang telah hilang.
6. Soscili: 4 teori Melayu yang mungkin buat korang terkejut & ternganga besar. 
7. Nach.Gov.fm : Nan Madol, East Site of Temwen Island.

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

20 July 2026: 1.48 p.m

WARKAH CINTA TERTUA DUNIA

Sumber: Dark of Mystery

Siapa sangka batu bersurat yang dijumpai di lembah Nippur, Iraq menjadi satu artifak yang cukup berharga dalam penyelidikan arkeologi. Apa yang menariknya, batu bersurat tertera tulisan Cuneiform ini sebenarnya adalah sebuah warkah cinta yang tertua pernah direkodkan.  

Mula dijumpai pada tahun 1889, ukiran batu ini telah ditemui seorang ahli arkeologi dari Universiti Philadelphia, Amerika Syarikat, Profesor Noah Kramer. Difahamkan, ukiran batu bersurat ini merupakan sebuah artifak peninggalan masyarakat Sumeria- sebuah bangsa yang menduduki tamadun awal Mesopotamia.  

Pada mulanya, objek ukiran batu tersebut hanya dianggap sebagai penemuan biasa sahaja. Bagaimanapun, selepas 58 tahun kemudian barulah diketahui  artifak berkenaan sebenarnya sangat bernilai terutamanya membongkar rahsia kisah kehidupan masyarakat kuno itu. 

Berdasarkan penyelidikan lanjut dan proses terjemahan mendapati, batu bersurat tersebut merupakan surat cinta yang diukir khas sempena hadiah perkahwinan. Surat ini dikatakan milik seorang bangsawan wanita yang bernama Inanna. Ia merupakan sebuah puisi cinta yang ditujukan khas kepada bakal suaminya.  Dianggarkan, warkah  cinta tertua di dunia itu ditulis sekitar tahun 2030 Sebelum Masihi.  

Berikut adalah terjemahan daripada petikan ayat surat berkenaan “Bridegroom, dear to my heart,Goodly is your beauty, honeysweet,Lion, dear to my heart,Goodly is your beauty, honeysweet. You have captivated me,Let me stand tremblingly before you. Bridegroom, I would be taken by you to the bedchamber,You have captivated me,Let me stand tremblingly before you.Lion, I would be taken by you to the bedchamber”.

“Bridegroom, let me caress you,My precious caress is more savory than honey,In the bedchamber, honey-filled,Let me enjoy your goodly beauty,Lion, let me caress you,My precious caress is more savory than honey.Bridegroom, you have taken your pleasure of me,Tell my mother, she will give you delicacies,My father, he will give you gifts.Your spirit, I know where to cheer your spirit”.

“Bridegroom, sleep in our house until dawn,Your heart, I know where to gladden your heart,Lion, sleep in our house until dawn.You, because you love me,Give me pray of your caresses,My lord god, my lord protector,My Shu-Sin, who gladdens Enlil’s heart,Give my pray of your caresses.Your place goodly as honey, pray lay your hand on it,Bring your hand over like a gishban-garment,Cup your hand over it like a gishban-sikin-garment”. 

Dalam tradisi masyarakat Sumeria, seseorang wanita yang ingin melangsungkan perkahwinan hendaklah melakukan kejutan istimewa buat pasangan mereka. Seperti mana yang sering dilakukan, mereka akan menulis puisi cinta yang diukir khas pada satu kepingan batu bersaiz kecil. Ia dianggap satu hadiah istimewa dan sebagai tanda kesetiaan serta kasih sayang golongan wanita Sumeria terhadap pasangan mereka. Kebiasaannya, amalan menulis puisi ini   dilakukan pada malam perkahwinan.

Tamadun Mesopotamia merupakan salah satu tamadun terawal di dunia yang wujud sekitar tahun 6,000 Sebelum Masihi. Lokasi tamadun kuno ini dikenal pasti terletak di Teluk Parsi iaitu di antara dua batang sungai utama yang dikenali Sungai Tigris dan Sungai Eupharates.  

Ketika zaman perkembangan tamadun ini, masyarakatnya terkenal dengan pelbagai ciptaan dan teknologi baru pada masa itu. Sebagai contoh, sistem pengairan yang sistematik bagi mengelakkan bencana banjir dan kemarau, pelopor pertama dalam penciptaan roda, memperkenalkan sistem nombor baru dan kalendar tahunan.

Selain itu, tamadun ini juga memiliki sistem pengurusan yang cekap terutamanya dalam urusan perdagangan dan pentadbiran. Menariknya, apa jua yang melibatkan kedua-dua aktiviti ini akan direkodkan pada plat-plat yang diperbuat daripada tanah liat. Rekod-rekod ini ditulis dengan menggunakan sistem penulisan mereka sendiri yang dikenali Cuneiform atau tulisan pepaku. 

C&P

19 Julai2026: 10.24 p.M

HAUNTED PLACES, HOUSES, BUILDING & GHOSTS AROUND THE WORLD

1. 99 Door Mansion: at Nibong Tebal,Seberang Perai, Penang > officially known as Caledonia Mansion or Calonia House, built in 1917 and has a reported 99 doors. It is currently abandoned and decrepit building known for its eerie legends, including whispers of a hidden 100th door. Belong to a wealthy British Ramston familyof planters, it was abandoned after the murder of the eldest son in 1948.  
2. Agnes Keith House: Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia - house of Agnes Newton Keith, an American Author. Reportedly haunted with a female apparition,believed to be the spirit of a resident who died throughout the wartime period.The house turned into a museum in 2004. 
3. Agrasen Ki Baoli: India - It is said that people coming to collect water were often called by a disembodied voice. 
4. Aisha Kandisha: one of the most famous and feared supernatural entities in Moroccan folklore. She is depicted as a predatory, shape-shifting figure who uses her extreme beauty to seduce men, drive them mad and ultimately lure them to their doom. 
5. Alcatraz Island: USA - notorious prison with legends of ghosts and strange occurences. 
6. Amber Court : Genting Highland, Pahang, Malaysia - an apartment and hotel built in 1990's. It has a notorious reputation as a haunted location with supernatural activities. 
7. Amityville : Long Island, New York, USA - became the subject of books and films after apparent hauntings following the murder of the DeFeo Family. The Lutz family purchased the home but remained in the home for only 28 days.In a court where the Lutzes were sued, they admitted that almost everything in the 1977 book "The Amityville Horror" was fictional. 
8. Ancient Ram Inn: Wotton-Under-Edge, England - believed to be one of the oldest inns in England (12th century). It's filled with reports of ghosts, including a monk, a little boy and even the Devil himself. 
9. Aokigahara Forest, Japan :  Known as the "Sea of Trees", this dense forest is tied to countless disappearance. Whispers, strange sounds and heavy atmosphere make it deeply unsettling. 
10. Aradale Hospital : Australia - 130-year old hospital, said to be location of over 130,000 deaths. The asylum is now abandoned and is considered to be one of Victoria's creepiest sites.With over 60 buildings, countless report of paranormal activity in Aradale. ... it is most definitely haunted. 
11. Baron Empain Palace, Cairo : the Baron's wife tragically fell to her death, and her spirit now roams the halls.Locals often hear whispers, footsteps and see shadows in the windows long after dark. 
12. Bhangarh Fort : in India - abandoned fort with a legend that no one stays there after sunset. 
13. Borgvattnet Parish : at Jamtland, Sweden - the most haunted place in Sweden. The church is built on cursed ground, and a lake nearby hides a grisly legend a grisly legend of murder and betrayal. 
14. Borley Rectory : England - was considered the most haunted house in the world, but its notoriety was deemed to have been created by Harry Pace, an expert magician and proven hoaxer. 
15. Bran Castle: Romania - a.k.a Dracula's Castle, the creepy fortress was the inspiration for Bram Stoker's dark tale. A local guide will retell the terrifying myths and facts about the castle. 
16. Bukit Tunku: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - previously known as Kenny Hill, a leafy area with British Colonial houses.There's a report of a phantom motorcycle and a ghost of a woman standing in the middle of the road.Local taxi drivers usually refuse to pick up women and children at night. 
17. Carrington Psychiatric Hospital: New Zealand - Auckland's first asylum was built in 1853. The ghost from the asylum's past now haunt students and staff of UNITEC Institute of Technology. 
18. Casa Loma: in Toronto, Canada - a house was completed in 1914.There have been rumors of ghosts there for many years. It is now a historic house museum and landmark that is decorated as a haunted house at Halloween. 
19. Castle of Good Hope: South Africa's oldest colonial building - several specters have been seen roaming the castle, including a soldier who repeatedly leaps from its walls, a woman dressed in gray wandering the castle's corridors and a spectral canine or ghost dog seen roaming the grounds. 
20. Catacombs of Paris : France - miles of tunnels lined with the bones of millions. Strange noises and sudden feelings of unease are common among visitors. 
21. Changi Beach : Singapore - During World War II, this beach was the site of executions by the Japanese Army. Many claim to see ghostly figures walking along the shore at night. 
22. Chateau De Brissac : located at Brissac-Quince, France - home to the "Green Lady", the ghost of a woman who was said to have been murdered by her husband in the 15th century. She is often seen on the grand staircase. 
23. Chuuk Lagoon: Micronesia, perfect example of a haunted destination under the sea.The site of one very deadly battle in particular. The massive attacked lasted 3 days, resulted in the deaths of 4,500 Japanese sailors. 
24. Corvin Castle : in Romania - considered one of the world's top five haunted places.According to locals, it has been haunted by its former occupant, Vlad the Impaler, ever since he was killed in an ambush. 
25. Eastern State Penitentiary: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA > once the famous prison in the world, it held Al Capone and "Slick Willie" Sutton. Visitors report cold spots, eerie whisper and the feeling of unseen eyes watching fro the cellblocks. 
26. Edinburgh Castle : at Ediburgh, Scotland - a fortress with a dark history of war, torture and execution. The sound of drums and ghostly figures are said to appear, especially at night. 
27. Fairmont Banff Springs Hotel: Canada - 131-year-old hotel is known for its amazing views of Banff National Park and also for the guests who have checked in but never checked out. The most popular lingering guests are said to be that of a burning bride, the bellman and a bartender. 
28. Farafra Desert: Egypt - famous in paranormal folklore for being haunted by the cursed ghost of Pharaoh Akhenaten. Dozens of tourists and local Bedouin nomads have reported seeing an aimless, ghostly figure wandering among the surreal chalk-white rock formations at night. 
29. First World Hotel: Genting Highland, Pahang, Malaysia - the world's largest hotel , with 6,118 rooms. Reportedly haunted due to gambling related suicides. 
30. Gettysburg Battlefield: the Battle of Gettysburg lasted for 3 days with 50,000 died in the conflict. The site at Pernnsylvanis field is haunted by fallen soldiers, searching for their rifles and comrades, unaware that the battle was over. 
31. Hashima Island: Japan - abandoned and haunted island with a dark past and eerie ruins. 
32. Highland Towers : Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - after a tragedy of a collapse tower on 11 December 1993,  that killed 48 residents, the remaining towers were reportedly haunted as claimed by the nearest residents who live not far from there. 
33. Hoia Baciu Forest: in Romania - it is called "Bermuda Triangle" of Romania due to the rumored supernatural disappearances of visitors, earning the Hoia-Baciu Forest a reputation for being one of the most ghostly places on earth.
34. Island of the Dolls: In Mexico - creepy island covered in dolls, with a chilling legend behind it. 
35. Jalan Turi Bungalow triple murder: the triple murder happened in April 23, 1992, two children, aged 11 and 7, along with their maid, had been battered to death inside the home. The Security Guard, Ariffin Agas was arrested and accused for murdering and was executed at Kajang Prison on 27 December 2002. The bungalow has been demolished, but passersby claim the site was haunted. 
36. Jerejak Island: Pulau Pinang, Malaysia - was once quarantine centre from leprosy and tuberculosis patients in British Malaya as well as maximum secutiry prison. There are some few reports of ghost sightings in the island.
37. Karak Highway : a Malaysian urban legend about a ghostly schoolboy who wanders the notoriously dangerous Karak Highway at night, asking passing motorists "Have you seen my mother?". The legend stems from the story of a car accident where the mother, who was driving, was killed upon impact, while her son suffered fatal injuries from the broken windscreen, dying while still searching for her. Karak highway itself is known for being one of Malaysia's spookiest and most haunted places, and also listed as one of the most haunted highway in the world, with a high number of accidents occurring there, making night journeys particularly dangerous. 
38. Kehoe House: Savannah, Georgia, USA - many believe the city is cursed because old burial grounds were covered up, paved over and built upon, quite literally one of the most haunted cities in the U.S. 
39. Kellie's Castle : Batu Gajah, Perak, Malaysia - a Moorish revival castle built by Scottish businessman William Kellie-Smith as a gift for his wife. The bulding remain unfinished as Kellie died of Pneumonia in 1926 before the completion of the castle. It was believed the castle was haunted by alleged Indian workers who died during the construction of the castle. The castle now become one of the popular tourist spot and international ghost hunters. 
40. Kinarut Mansion: located at Kinarut, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia - one of Sabah's most infamous paranormal hotspots. This century-old site is legendary for its ghostly folklore and eerie atmosphere. 
41. La Laurie Mansion: located at New Orleans, Louisiana, USA - home to the notorious Madame LaLaurie, who was accused of horrific crimes. Strange screams and ghostly apparitions are often reported. 
42. Manly Quarantien Station: Sydney, Australia - the station was used to hold settlers suspected of having diseases like the bubonic plague or smallpox. Hundres died during the quarantine process and the station is now referred to as Australia's most haunted site. 
    Muriel's Jackson Square: New Orleans, USA - a restaurant in Muriel's Jackson Square rumored to be haunted by the spirit of former Pierre Antoine Lepardi Jourdan, who committed suicide after losing the restaurant in a poker game. 
43. Myrtles Plantation: St. Francisville, Louisiana, USA -  built in 1796, this plantation is one of America's most haunted homes. The ghost of Chloe, a former enslaved girl, is said to still roam the house where she once lived. 
44. Old Changi Hospital: Singapore - built by the British Government in 1935. During the Japanese Occupation, it was used as a military hospital for wounded Japanese soldiers and some Allied prisoners of war. It also served as a prison area managed by the notorious Kempetai, Japanese Military Police. The hospital now are said to be haunted by the victims of the Japanese Occupation, the spirits of those who died in the hospital and the prison. 
45. Penang War Museum: located at Batu Maung, Penang > built within a former coastal defense fort from World War II, this museum has been the site of numerous executions and battles, leading to its haunted reputation. 
46. Poveglia Island, Italy: Once a quarantine station and mental asylum, this abandoned island is said to be cursed. Visitors report hearing screams and seeing shadown in the ruins. 
47. Pudu Prison:Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia -  built between 1891 and 1895, located at Jalan Shaw (now Jalan Hang Tuah). The prison was demolished in December 2012 to make way for Bukit Bintang City Centre. It is famous for stories of hauntings stemming from executions and deaths within its walls. 
48. Queen Mary: Historic Ocean Liner at Long Beach, California, USA. Said to be haunted by former passengers and crew. Cold spots, mysterious footsteps and apparitions are common on board. 
49. Shih Chung Branch School, Penang, Malaysia: founded in 1938, and occupied the site of a former five-storey villa on Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah in Penang. During World War II, the building was under the Japanese occupation, and locals allegedly executed there, leading to widespread belief that the spirits of those who died haunt the premises. 
50. Stanley Hotel, U.S.A : Estes Park, Colorado, USA - the inspiration for Stephen King's "The Shining". Guests report apparitions, cold spots and the piano playing by itself in the empty ballroom. 
51. Tao Dan Park: Vietnam - one of the most haunted places in the world. Vietnam locals believe a young man was killed in an attack and returns to the park every night searching for his lost love. At night, a young man's ghost and apparition may come lurking in the shadows of the park's trees. 
52. Tower of London: Nearly a thousand year of history, imprisonment, torture and execution. The spirit of Anne Boleyn, Lady Jane Grey and many others are said to still walk the grounds at night. 
53. Villa Nabila: located at Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia - the villa is surrounded by legends of a series of murders and family tragedy, making it a chillingly infamous location and has garnered a reputation as one of the country's most haunted locations and JB scariest yet. 
54. Village of Pluckley: England - known as the most haunted village in England. 
55. Waverly Hills Sanatorium: USA - abandon hospital with a terrifying history of deaths and experiments. 
56. Whaley House: located at San Diego, USA - the famous ghost sighted was "Yankee" Jim Robinson, who was hanged on the site in 1852. 
57. Winchester Mystery House: located at San Jose, California, USA - built by Sarah Winchester, this mansion has staircases to nowhere, hidden doors and endless rooms - said to confuse restless spirits. 
58. Windsor Castle: United Kingdom - widely considered the most haunted of all the British Royal residences, boasting more than 25 reported ghost sightings across its millennium long history. Among the famous Royal Ghosts sighted were Queen Elizabeth I, King Henry VIII, Anne Boleyn & King George III.
59. Wukang Mansion: a historical house in Shanghai, China, has a reputation forbeing haunted because of the large number of suicides of celebrities, intellectuals and state-persecuted people there. 
60. Zvikov Castle : Czech Republic - haunted by spectral dogs and the Zvikovsky Rarasek, a kind of magical imp. There are frequent reports of cameras breaking, fires extinguishing and animals behaving strangely. It is said that people who sleep in the tower will die within a year. 

Other's reading :

1. CN Traveler : 64 Haunted Hotels Around the World you can stay at, if you dare. 
2. Contiki :  A Definite list of the 13 most haunted places in the world.
3.  Island Destination: The Most Haunted Destinations in the Entire World. 
4. Roaming Around The World : Top Creepy Places Around the World. 
5.  Maps Apple : 12 Most Haunted Places in the World. 

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

19 July 2026: 1.57 p.m

Chola Copper Plates unravel forgotten Malaysian history

By A.Kathirasen

Free Malaysia Today

The Anaimangalam Copper Plates provide tangible evidence of ancient India–Malay world connections.

On May 16, the Netherlands returned the 11th-century Anaimangalam Copper Plates to India. Here in Malaysia, the event passed with hardly a whisper.

I didn’t see any report of it in the major newspapers or news portals, and social media mentions were sparse.

What, you may ask, has the return of some ancient copper plates from the Netherlands to India got to do with us? On the surface, very little.

But look deeper, and they speak to something profound in our shared past — ties that stretch far beyond the Melaka Sultanate and colonial rule, and which still quietly colour the plural spirit of our nation.

The plates draw us back to the Srivijaya Empire and its key centre of Kadaram, known today as Kedah. They offer a glimpse into an era when the Chola Empire of South India and the kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago engaged one another not in rivalry, but in the language of trade, diplomacy, and pragmatic goodwill.

The Anaimangalam Copper Plates, also known as the Chola Plates and Leiden Plates, belong mainly to the time of Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014 CE).

According to Leiden University one object comprises 21 copper plates held together by a bronze ring bearing the seal of King Rajendra Chola I (the son of Rajaraja Chola I), who reigned in the 11th century. Five plates contain Sanskrit inscriptions, and the remaining 16 plates contain inscriptions in Tamil. The other object comprises three copper plates also held together by a bronze ring – this time bearing the seal of King Kulottunga Chola I (who reigned from 1070 to 1120) – containing Tamil inscriptions.

India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi, speaking at the symbolic handover ceremony in The Hague together with Netherlands Prime Minister Rob Jetten, described the plates as symbols of Chola maritime reach and cultural confidence. The artefacts had reached Leiden University via a Dutch missionary in the early 18th century.

At the heart of the plates lies a telling episode of goodwill. And this is where the story gets interesting.

In 1006 CE, the Srivijayan ruler Sri Mara Vijayotunga Varman sought permission from Rajaraja Chola I to build a Buddhist monastery – the Chudamani Vihara – in the Chola port of Nagapattinam.

Rajaraja Chola I was a devout Hindu, the very king who built the majestic Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur. Yet he not only granted permission but generously allocated land in Anaimangalam village — some 450 acres — together with tax exemptions, for a Buddhist institution from across the sea to take root in his realm.

Think about it. A powerful Hindu king willingly offering land in his own territory to support a Buddhist monastery for foreign merchants and monks and ordering that the revenue in that area go towards its upkeep.

It was an act of statesmanship and religious openness that still speaks to us today.

In a world often divided by faith, it reminds us that personal belief need not hinder mutual respect and the greater good of harmonious living. It also tells us about the virtues of a good leader.

In return, the Srivijayan king sent his envoy Vimalan Agatheesvaran bearing gifts — lamps, silver vessels and plates — to the Kayarohana Siva Temple, a graceful acknowledgement of the Chola ruler’s own faith.

These exchanges, preserved on the copper plates, tell a story of reciprocity and understanding.

For us in Malaysia, the story should feel particularly close because the plates refer to the Srivijayan ruler as “the Lord of Srivijaya, who is also ruling Katāha” — the ancient Sanskrit name for Kedah.

Strategically located at the northern gateway of the Straits of Malacca, with Gunung Jerai standing sentinel for sailors crossing the Bay of Bengal, Kadaram was a thriving node in the great Indian Ocean trade network.

Tamil merchant guilds like the Manigramam and Ainnurruvar had been active in these waters from the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. An inscription at Takua Pa in southern Thailand (8th–9th century) bears witness to their organised presence near Kedah.

Through trade and exchange, they brought goods, ideas, architectural knowledge, administrative models and religious concepts. Local communities absorbed what enriched their lives, giving rise to a vibrant hybrid culture whose tangible traces can still be seen in the ancient candi temples and artifacts of the Bujang Valley.

But relations were not always harmonious. Later, Rajendra Chola I launched naval expeditions against Srivijayan ports, including Kadaram, to secure trade routes (more on this in my next column). It shows that cooperation and competition walked side by side in the maritime world. As it does even today.

The return of the plates to India invites us to reflect on a broader truth.

Too often, the Indian presence in Malaysia is viewed narrowly through the prism of British colonial rule and the arrival of indentured labourers in the 19th and 20th centuries.

But these copper plates, the ruins in Bujang Valley, and other archaeological and written evidence tell a far richer and older story. Indian — particularly Tamil — engagement with our region goes back well over a thousand years.

This long chapter of trade, cultural dialogue, and mutual influence helped transform local societies long before the Melaka Sultanate or the colonial period. This history informs us that Indians helped shape the layered foundations of what we as a nation are today.

This, of course, does not diminish the pivotal role of Islam in defining Malay civilisation. On the contrary, it adds depth and colour to our national tapestry — reminding us that Malaysia has long been a crossroads where different worlds met, mingled, and enriched one another.

In the quiet return of these ancient plates lies a gentle lesson: that openness, respect across faiths, and the wisdom to see beyond one’s own boundaries are not modern ideals. They are part of our heritage — values worth remembering and nurturing in our diverse society today.

The views expressed are those of the writer and do not necessarily reflect those of FMT.

C&P

18 July 2026: 7.57 p.m

Gunung Jerai: unearthing its history, unveiling its mystery

By Maria J. Dass

Scoop : 15 October 2023

I AM in two minds about writing this piece on a recent trip to Gunung Jerai – a lesser-known hill station in the country – simply because I feel I have found a hidden gem that I would like to keep under wraps and protected from haphazard development that plagued other local hill resorts once demand for attractions, accommodation and recreational activities spike.

The word “Gunung Jerai” or “Mount Jerai” has been a familiar term since I embarked on a quest to explore Malaysian history and heritage. This site is however not within the radar of most local or foreign tourists.

Ancient sailors looked out for the peak of this mountain to mark their entry into one of the busiest maritime routes – the Strait of Melaka. The foot of this mountain was where the thriving ancient ports of the Bujang Valley – Sg Batu and Pengkalan Bujang – were located until receding sea levels pushed the coastline further westward – leading to the decline of these ancient maritime trading sites where evidence of international trade, a large iron smelting industry and multicultural society has been (and is still being) unearthed by archaeologists since the 1930s.

The abundance of minerals in the area, especially much valued iron and gold, is indicated by pegmatite lines at the peak of Gunung Jerai. Iron in particular was the reason why the Kingdom of Ancient Kedah which the Bujang Valley was a part of prospered.

The 10-km drive up to Jerai Hill Resort via narrow winding roads took about 30 minutes, with hardly any stops along the way. This resort is located within the Jerai National Geopark that is made up of 24 geosites, three geoarchaeological sites, one bio site and eight historical and cultural sites. Declared a geopark in 2017, it covers 816 sq km in the districts of Yan and Kuala Muda.

Padang Tok Sheikh is one of the most significant sites within this geopark. Located 1,150m above sea level, it is one of the oldest rock formations on mainland Peninsular Malaysia, formed during the Cambrian period 550 million years ago – back when this side of the world was a part of Gondwana, an ancient supercontinent.

This site has high heritage value being the oldest rock formation found in mainland Peninsular Malaysia, and the second oldest in the country after the Mat Chinchang range on Langkawi Island, which is a Unesco Global Geopark site that is recognised as the oldest rock formation in Southeast Asia.

The Padang Tok Sheikh rock formation was once a shallow seabed covered by mud clay and sand. Long periods of sedimentation caused this seabed to be buried deep in the earth’s surface and harden into rock over time.

It was pushed to the surface and its current position as a result of an episode of granite intrusion that occurred 220 million years ago during the Triassic period. This shift also resulted in the land mass we have today including the Titiwangsa Range that was formed about 250 million years ago.

The heritage value of this spot is confounded by the fact that this place is believed to be where the first call to prayer was performed in Peninsular Malaysia – by the 9th Sultan of Kataha (Kedah today) Sultan Muzaffar Shah (Maharaja Derbar Raja II).

The ruler was converted to Islam by Arab Sheikh Abdullah bin Sheikh Ahmad bin Sheikh Jaafar Qumiri in the 12th century AD – according to the ancient text Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa. This is a conflict of sorts with earlier accounts of Islam entering this part of the world through the Malacca Empire in the 15th century – but that is for another article.

Datuk Dr Mohktar Saidin, an archeologist and geologist, and former director of University Sains Malaysia’s Centre for Global Archaeological Research, said over 5,000 years ago the shoreline in the area was about 8-km inland.

It thus supported the development of a maritime settlement that had a thriving port, interaction between multi-ethnic and cultural communities and barter trading.

Based on his archeological findings, Mokhtar said that port cities like Sg Batu existed around 788 BC. These port cities including Pengkalan Bujang in Merbok started to decline following a drop in sea levels that saw the shoreline moved westward to where it is today.

The ecosystem in the area also included mangrove swamps, in which the wood was needed to produce charcoal required by the iron smelting industry. The iron smelting process needed temperatures of up to 1,200°C to melt iron ore sourced from the Bujang Valley.

In addition to this, raw materials like clay, granite and laterite used to make bricks and produce building materials, bases and pillars were abundant in the surrounding areas.

A workshop manufacturing granite structures was unearthed in Bukit Batu Pahat. Clay bricks can be seen in the remains of jetties, Hindu and Buddhist temples and other structures unearthed by archaeologists.

Some of the other attractions at Jerai Geopark include mangrove forests along the Merbok River estuary and tropical rainforests with endemic flora and fauna, islands like Pulai Bidan, Pulau Songsong, Pulau Sayak and Pulau Telur, ancient shorelines, geo disaster sites such as spots hits by the tsunami in 2004, museums and galleries, traditional villages, cuisine and socio-cultural practices.

Some of the best views from Gunung Jerai are from Jerai Hill Resort where the vast green paddy fields in the Yan district can be seen merging with the azure waters of the strait of Melaka – intermittently dotted with islands. – October 15, 2023

C&P

18 July 2026: 7.29 p.m

ONLINE NEWS: KEDAH HAS SOUTHESAST ASIA'S OLDEST CIVILISATION AND ARCHAEOLOGISTS BARELY KNOW ITS COMPLETE HISTORY

Resource: Universiti Sains Malaysia

Channel News Asia

Kedah has Southeast Asia's oldest civilisation and archaeologists barely know its complete history

By Aqil Haziq Mahmud | 02 July 2023 (Updated: 11 Jul 2023)

A retired researcher who discovered the oldest dated evidence in Bujang Valley is calling for young archaeologists to continue his mission and uncover the true extent of this ancient civilisation.

ALOR SETAR, Kedah: When Professor Mokhtar Saidin bought a house in a private enclave in Sungai Petani, Kedah in 2005, he did not know that he was moving close to a site that would mean so much for Malaysia’s history.

“I did not think that I would be doing work nearby. God planned this,” he told CNA.

From 2007 to his retirement in 2021, Mokhtar made the half-an-hour drive countless times to the nearby Sungai Batu archaeological site, where he and his team from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) uncovered evidence of a thriving iron export industry dating as far back as 788 BC.

For context, this is much older than the famous monuments of Borobudur (8th century) in Indonesia and Angkor Wat (12th century) in Cambodia, making Sungai Batu and the larger Bujang Valley complex it is part of the oldest civilisation in Southeast Asia.

This declaration was accorded to Sungai Batu during a meeting on Ancient Kedah in 2016. A Bernama report quoted Mokhtar as saying that it was signed by five archaeological experts representing five world civilisations: Mesopotamia, Indus, Mesoamerica, China, and Greek-Rome.

Bujang Valley is believed to have occupied an area as big as 1,000 sq km on Malaysia’s west coast, stretching from northern Penang to Kedah and possibly eastwards to as far as the current border with Thailand.

Since more than a century ago, researchers who worked on the valley have dug up evidence of Hindu-Buddhist temples, iron smelting sites and ancient relics.

They say this is proof the area was a bustling, cosmopolitan trading port on the sea route from China to India and further on to Arabia.

“It really shows that this area is important, not just to Southeast Asia but the world, because this area connects the East and West,” Mokhtar said, pointing out that the area’s geographical features made it an “ideal” port.

The valley had a bay and estuary for ships to dock, and the nearby Mount Jerai acted as a visible waypoint for vessels making the long voyage.

“Ships stopped here for three months to wait for the winds. During these months religion spread, leading to the existence of the temples. Sungai Batu is a picture of the trading system 2,800 years ago,” Mokhtar added.

Despite the site’s outsized historical significance, Mokhtar - who retired two years ago - said archeological works here have stalled and that no one has replaced him to continue his work and uncover more of this ancient civilisation.

SO MUCH YET TO BE UNCOVERED

Mokhtar, the former director of USM’s Centre for Global Archaeological Research, said he initially could not believe that the charcoal remains his team found at an iron smelting site were from 788 BC, based on radiocarbon dating.

“I had to see the real stratigraphy; whether the connection is true,” he said, referring to a chronological sequence based on the oldest soil layer at the bottom to the youngest soil layer at the top.

“Also, none of our history books said we exported iron ingots; we were only known as a supplier of gold and tin. It really surprised me because iron exporting was a heavy industry that needed really good infrastructures.

“We found (evidence of) a really high-tech port - not just jetties but administrative and customs buildings. So, we were really high-tech people.”

But Mokhtar, who started excavating the Sungai Batu site in 2009, believes his work of over 12 years has barely unearthed “10 per cent” of what Bujang Valley has to offer.

Mokhtar pointed out that he has found evidence of more iron smelting sites on the banks of Sungai Muda, a river which stretches further east to the current border with Thailand.

“From Sungai Muda to Pattani (in Thailand), besides iron smelting there must be homes and administrative buildings,” he said.

“We hear that Egypt and Rome are still finding new things. So, research must go on. It took me so many years just (to get to where we are now).”

Researchers have also found mentions of Qalah - the Arabic word for ancient Kedah - inscribed on documents used in Mesopotamia in 1300 BC, much older than his 788 BC discovery, Mokhtar said.

“It shows there is contact with Mesopotamia - the earliest civilisation in the world 8,000 years ago. But we have not found evidence yet. So, it is very important that future research gets this data.”

Mokhtar hopes the next generation of archaeologists can “complete” his data to determine how big and old Bujang Valley actually is, stressing that it is part of Malaysia’s natural heritage, identity and pride.

“The government should look at Bujang Valley as what Rome did for Pompeii,” he said.

“Also because archaeotourism brings a lot of income, like Borobudur and Angkor. You must look at Bujang Valley at that level.”

SEARCHING FOR A SUCCESSOR

But Mokthar said no one has taken over him yet to lead a team that will continue researching the Bujang Valley complex, and that he does not know the reason why.

While some of his former students are currently working at the site as part of their curriculum, he stressed that it is not easy to do this full time.

“The work is tough; you are both the worker and boss,” he said, adding that archaeology involves manual labour and interpretation in a tedious and time-consuming documentation process.

“When I retired, I did not expect that nobody would continue (my work). If someone continued, I could help out.”

After this article was published, the current director of USM's Centre for Global Archaeological Research contacted CNA to give an update.

Professor Stephen Chia said a team from the university is still continuing work at Bujang Valley. The team is led by Dr Nasha Rodziadi Khaw, a protohistorian and an expert on early civilisations in Malaysia and Southeast Asia.

Protohistory refers to the period of human development or a particular culture immediately before the emergence of writing.

"Currently, USM is undertaking research at Pengkalan Bujang and Bukit Choras in Bujang Valley and also with Think City to promote archaeotourism in the Bujang Valley, Kedah and Lenggong Valley and Tambun, Perak in the northern regions of Malaysia," Chia said.

Think City is an organisation that provides project expertise in areas like environmental and social resilience, analytics and conservation. It was founded by Malaysia sovereign wealth fund Khazanah Nasional.

"It is hoped that the outcomes of USM research on this important protohistory site in Bujang Valley in Southeast Asia will result in a reliable narrative that is much needed for this site," Chia added.

Chia acknowledged that archaeological excavation is destructive and costly, and that a "professional multidisciplinary team" is needed to carry out detailed work and ensure no data is lost during the dig to provide an accurate and comprehensive interpretation of the site.

"Since 2009, USM is still working closely with Department of National Heritage for many years to conduct archaeological research, conservation, development and archaeotourism not only in the Bujang Valley but also in Lenggong Valley UNESCO World Heritage Site and other sites in Malaysia," he said.

CNA had previously asked the Department of National Heritage, which manages the Sungai Batu site, for an update on the project. The department has not responded.

Mohd Faudzi Sulaiman, a senior museum assistant at the Bujang Valley Archaeological Museum in Merbok, said archaeological work needs a good amount of funding.

“It can take years for just one site because these artefacts could be thousands of years old and are fragile,” he told CNA, noting that several mounds at the Sungai Batu archaeological site have yet to be excavated.

“So if these works take years, the costs to pay for workers, equipment and other (expenses) will definitely go up.”

Faudzi was personally involved in the early archaeological work on the temple sites and is now employed at the museum where some of these structures were moved to.

Many of the temple sites were located in forested areas, so excavations proved difficult, he said. Some of the sites were in villages, so authorities had to find alternative spots for the museum or persuade villagers to move.

Likewise, the Sungai Batu site is located in a privately-owned plantation, Mohktar said, adding that its “very nice” owner permitted his team to continue research only if the trees were not disturbed.

Beyond logistics, Bujang Valley has also run into challenges on the issue of religion, a sensitive topic in Muslim-majority Malaysia.

“A lot of these sites are in the form of candi monuments, which are places of worship for Hinduism and Buddhism. Here, we are all (practising) Islam, so there were some objections from locals,” Faudzi said.

“But as the museum department, we take it as a historical site. If we research this place, we will know our history.”

MORE RECOGNITION NEEDED

Like Mokhtar, Faudzi believes that Bujang Valley plays an important role in attracting tourists to Malaysia, noting that numerous homestays and food stalls have sprouted in the area since the museum opened in 1980.

The free-admission museum is also revamping its archaeological gallery, which features relics found in Bujang Valley like earthenware and Buddha figures. Another gallery on maritime trading was recently added.

“We found tens of thousands of artefacts here from China, India and Arabia. It shows that trading occurred,” Faudzi said.

“Many international tourists and researchers have come here. Even though the monuments here are not as impressive as Borobudur and Angkor Wat, they are much older.”

Moving forward, Faudzi hopes Bujang Valley can be accorded UNESCO World Heritage status to boost tourism and improve conservation efforts.

Bernama reported in 2019 that the National Heritage Department was lobbying UNESCO to recognise the valley as a world heritage site. The government had also allocated RM10 million (US$2.16 million) for the department to develop infrastructure at the Sungai Batu site as one of the country’s main tourism spots.

But a UNESCO spokesperson told CNA that Bujang Valley has not been listed by Malaysia in an inventory of potential nominations, and hence was “not even at the first step of the process”.

CNA has also asked the National Heritage Department about this issue.

Regardless of Bujang Valley’s status, Mokhtar feels authorities can attract more tourists by using technology.

For instance, the Sungai Batu site could feature three-dimensional “holograms” of what the structures would have looked like in their heyday, he said.

“We found remains of the roof and walls … so we know the original sizes and can create 3D ‘buildings’,” he said.

“We have to put in some money to improve this.”

Pusat Media dan Perhubungan Awam

Media and Public Relations Centre

Level 1, Building E42, Chancellory II, 

Universiti Sains Malaysia, 

11800, USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

Tel : 04-653 6495 | Emel : mprc@usm.my | Web : www.usm.my

C&P

17 July 2026: 9.07 p.m

BESI DAN ALAM MELAYU

Hubungan antara orang Melayu dan besi mempunyai sejarah amat mendalam, mencakup aspek teknologi tamadun purba, seni pertukangan, serta kepercayaan mistik tradisional. Bukti arkeologi membuktikan bangsa Melayu bukan sekadar pengguna, malah merupakan pelopor industri peleburan logam terawal di Asia Tenggara. 

1. Sejarah Peleburan Besi Purba

• Tamadun Sungai Batu: Tapak arkeologi di Kedah membuktikan masyarakat Melayu Kedah Tua telah melebur besi bermutu tinggi sejak tahun 788 Sebelum Masihi. 
• Eksport Global: Hasil besi dari tamadun ini dieksport ke seluruh dunia, termasuk ke tamadun Rom dan Parsi, menjadikannya pusat metalurgi terbesar di rantau ini pada zaman purba. 
• Teknologi Relung: Penggunaan relung peleburan bersuhu tinggi membuktikan penguasaan sains bahan yang sangat maju mendahului zamannya. 

2. Istilah dan Jenis Besi Tradisional

Orang Melayu mempunyai klasifikasi yang sangat khusus untuk pelbagai jenis besi berdasarkan sifat fizikal dan "aura" kerohaniannya: 

• Besi Kursani: Dianggap unsur besi asli paling kuat, ditarik dari kerak bumi, dan dikaitkan dengan unsur besi dalam tubuh manusia untuk perlindungan diri.
• Besi Kuning: Sering dikaitkan dengan pembuatan azimat atau senjata khusus untuk kekebalan.
• Besi Bari Semut: Jenis besi yang mempunyai tekstur halus unik seumpama sarang atau laluan semut.
• Besi Bersula & Bersuda: Istilah pengelasan tradisional berdasarkan fungsi dan bentuk khusus tempaan.

3. Seni Pertukangan "Pandai Besi"

• Pembuatan Senjata: Gelaran Pandai Besi diberikan kepada ahli pakar yang menempa senjata warisan seperti keris, keleweng, pedang, dan parang. 
• Ketelitian Spiritual: Proses menempa, terutamanya keris, melibatkan pemilihan hari baik, adunan pelbagai jenis logam (termasuk batu meteor), dan ritual khusus untuk memastikan kualiti fizikal serta batiniah. 
• Teknik Khusus: Wujudnya teknik lagenda seperti keris picit (menempa besi menggunakan hujung jari melalui ilmu melentur besi lama) yang diwarisi oleh zuriat tukang tertentu. 

4. Kelengkapan Perang Logam

• Baju Besi: Walaupun sering digambarkan hanya berkain sarung, pahlawan Melayu silam sebenarnya menggunakan baju besi (zirah) dan penetap perisai logam semasa pertempuran besar melawan penjajah.
• Teknologi Meriam: Penguasaan teknologi tuangan gangsa dan besi membolehkan kerajaan Melayu seperti Melaka dan Acheh menghasilkan meriam (rentaka dan lela) sendiri untuk pertahanan kota.

KHASIAT DAN MITOS BESI KURSANI

Besi Kursani (atau kersani, khurasani) ialah unsur logam metafizik yang sangat terkenal dalam alam pemikiran mistik masyarakat Melayu dan Nusantara. Berbeza dengan besi biasa, ia dianggap sebagai "raja besi" purba yang dikaitkan dengan rahsia asal-usul kekuatan batin dan perlindungan fizikal manusia. 

Asal-Usul dan Mitos

• Wilayah Khurasan: Dari sudut sejarah, nama "Kursani" diambil daripada nama wilayah kuno Khurasan (kini meliputi sebahagian Iran, Afghanistan, dan Uzbekistan). Kawasan ini terkenal pada zaman silam sebagai pengeluar senjata besi bermutu tinggi, kuat, dan amat ampuh. 
• Unsur dalam Tubuh: Mitos Melayu lama (terutamanya dalam kitab-kitab ilmu hikmat dan persilatan) percaya bahawa unsur besi kursani sedia wujud secara rohani atau eterik di dalam setiap tubuh manusia. Ada pendapat menyebut ia tersimpan di bahagian tulang sulbi atau tapak kaki. 
• Tanda Kebangkitan: Pendekar lama percaya unsur ini boleh "dibangkitkan" melalui amalan doa, zikir, atau mantera khusus. Apabila ia bangkit, pengamal akan mendengar bunyi berdesing atau mendenging di dalam telinga, menandakan kekuatan besi tersebut mula mengalir ke seluruh urat darah. 

Khasiat Metafizik (Menurut Kepercayaan Tradisional)

• Ilmu Kekebalan: Pengamal ilmu besi kursani mempercayai tubuh mereka akan menjadi kebal daripada sebarang kecederaan senjata tajam atau peluru, kerana besi luar tidak akan mampu memakan "besi" di dalam badan. 
• Kekuatan Fizikal Gandaan: Apabila semangat besi kursani diaktifkan, kekuatan fizikal seseorang dikatakan boleh meningkat sehingga empat kali ganda, menjadikannya sangat digeruni ketika bertempur. 
• Ketahanan dan Kewibawaan: Ia dipercayai memberikan pemiliknya ketahanan daripada penyakit, meningkatkan tenaga batin, serta memancarkan aura karamah atau "gerun" yang membuatkan musuh berasa gentar. 

Sudut Pandang Sains dan Realiti Fizikal

• Mineral Pyrite (Fools Gold): Di alam nyata, objek fizikal yang sering dijual atau dirujuk sebagai "batu besi kursani" oleh pengumpul barangan mistik sebenarnya ialah mineral pirit (pyrite). Batuan ini mengandungi unsur besi sulfida yang kelihatan berkilau kekuningan seumpama emas. 
• Hemoglobin Darah: Dari sudut sains biologi, unsur zat besi memang wujud di dalam badan manusia (melalui sel darah merah atau hemoglobin), tetapi ia berfungsi mengangkut oksigen untuk kelangsungan hidup, bukannya untuk memberikan kekebalan mistik.

Kepercayaan terhadap besi kursani mencerminkan bagaimana masyarakat Melayu silam mengadunkan elemen geografi dunia (Khurasan), sains logam, dan falsafah kerohanian bagi membina semangat kepahlawanan. 

BESI KUNING & BESI TURSANI

Dalam tradisi mistik dan perlogaman Melayu lama, Besi Kuning dan Besi Tursani (sering disebut juga sebagai Tursina atau Tursani) merupakan dua lagi kategori besi yang dianggap mempunyai "semangat", rahsia batin, serta kekuatan sakti yang tersendiri selain daripada Besi Kursani.

1. Besi Kuning (Wesi Kuning)

Besi Kuning amat sinonim dengan kisah kepahlawanan Jawa dan Melayu purba, khususnya menerusi lagenda Minak Jinggo (Pemerintah Blambangan) yang kebal daripada segala senjata kerana memiliki azimat Besi Kuning.

• Bentuk Fizikal: Di pasaran barangan mistik lama, besi kuning sering dijumpai dalam bentuk kepompong besi (seperti kepompong ulat sutera berwarna kekuningan), jarum lama, atau bilah senjata kecil.
• Mitos Asal-usul: Terdapat mitos yang menyatakan besi ini berasal daripada sisa-sisa acuan pembuatan senjata sakti zaman silam, atau logam yang dipuja dengan mentera khusus oleh para empu (tukang besi).
• Khasiat Kepercayaan:
• Kekebalan Mutlak: Dianggap sebagai azimat tertinggi untuk ilmu kebal, mengelakkan badan daripada lut (tembus) oleh peluru, hirisan pisau, atau tetakan parang.
• Pelindung Sihir: Dipercayai mempunyai aura magnetik rohani yang menolak gangguan makhluk halus, santet, guna-guna, dan pengkhianatan manusia.
• Kewibawaan (Kharisma): Sesiapa yang menyimpan atau membawanya dikatakan akan dihormati oleh kawan dan ditakuti oleh lawan.

2. Besi Tursani (Besi Tursina)

Besi Tursani mempunyai kedudukan yang sangat tinggi dan eksklusif kerana namanya sering dikaitkan dengan unsur-unsur geografi yang suci dalam teks-teks keagamaan lama (Kitab Tib dan Ilmu Hikmat).

• Asal-usul Nama: Nama "Tursani" atau "Tursina" diambil bersempena nama Bukit Sinai (Jabal Musa) di Mesir/Semenanjung Sinai, tempat Nabi Musa A.S. menerima wahyu. Dalam manuskrip Melayu lama, besi yang dibawa dari kawasan pergunungan berbatu ini dianggap mempunyai berkat yang luar biasa.
• Sifat Fizikal: Berbeza dengan besi kursani yang lebih gelap atau besi kuning yang berkilau, besi tursani tulen dalam manuskrip lama digambarkan mempunyai ketahanan yang amat tinggi terhadap karat, sangat padat, dan mempunyai jalur atau corak urat yang halus.
• Khasiat Kepercayaan:
• Penunduk Tirani: Khasiat utama besi tursani adalah sebagai "penunduk". Ia digunakan oleh para pemimpin, panglima, atau utusan raja zaman dahulu agar kata-kata mereka dipatuhi dan tidak ditolak oleh orang lain.
• Penaung (Wibawa Besar): Memberikan ketenangan jiwa kepada pemiliknya, sekaligus memancarkan tenaga ketegasan yang adil, sesuai dengan simbolik keteguhan Bukit Sinai.
• Kekuatan fizikal dan batin: Dipercayai mampu memperkuatkan sistem pertahanan badan daripada serangan penyakit rohani (penyakit ain, histeria, atau gangguan sihir).

Pandangan Realiti Moden & Penilaian

Sama seperti besi kursani, objek yang dijual sebagai "Besi Kuning" di zaman moden selalunya merupakan gangsa purba (bronze), tembaga kuning (brass), atau batuan mineral Chalcopyrite. Manakala "Besi Tursani" sering kali merujuk kepada batu meteorit purba atau besi berkualiti tinggi dari wilayah Timur Tengah yang dibawa masuk ke Nusantara ratusan tahun dahulu.

Dalam budaya Melayu, pemilikan objek-objek ini dahulunya berfungsi sebagai "ikhtiar" fizikal dan psikologi bagi menaikkan semangat juang para pahlawan sebelum melangkah ke medan perang.

BUKTI SEJARAH : BESI KEDAH DIEKSPOT KE ROM DAN PARSI

Bukti sejarah yang menunjukkan besi dari Kedah Tua (khususnya Tapak Arkeologi Sungai Batu) dieksport ke tamadun besar dunia seperti Rom dan Parsi adalah benar dan didukung oleh penemuan arkeologi serta catatan bertulis kuno. 

Berikut adalah hujah serta bukti utama yang mengesahkan fakta sejarah tersebut:

1. Bukti Catatan Bertulis Dunia Kuno

• Catatan Sarjana Parsi dan Arab: Tokoh ilmuwan terkenal Parsi, Al-Biruni, bersama ahli falsafah Al-Kindi, merekodkan dalam kitab mereka bahawa besi yang berasal dari Kalah (nama kuno bagi Kedah Tua) adalah antara tiga jenis besi terbaik di dunia zaman tersebut selain daripada besi Yaman dan India. Besi ini dipanggil sebagai Qalai atau besi hitam berkualiti tinggi yang khusus digunakan untuk menempa pedang perang. 
• Kesusasteraan Tamil Purba: Teks epik India seperti Parunkathai secara jelas menyebut istilah Kadraththuirumpu yang bermaksud "besi dari Kedah Tua". Ia direkodkan sebagai bahan logam bernilai tinggi yang diimport untuk dijadikan kelengkapan perang seperti pedang dan rata (kereta kuda perang) di pasaran antarabangsa. 

2. Bukti Arkeologi Skala Gergasi di Sungai Batu

• Penemuan Relau Peleburan: Ahli arkeologi dari Pusat Penyelidikan Arkeologi Global (PPAG) Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) telah menemui jutaan komponen tiub peniup angin (tuyere) dan sisa relau peleburan bijih besi yang sistematik. Jumlah sisa industri yang sangat besar ini membuktikan Sungai Batu bukan sekadar bengkel tempatan, tetapi sebuah "kilang besi gergasi" yang mengeluarkan produk berskala eksport global. 
• Tarikh Karbon Menyamai Era Rom: Pentarikhan radiokarbon membuktikan aktiviti peleburan besi di Sungai Batu bermula seawal 788 Sebelum Masihi (SM) hingga abad ke-5 Masihi. Garis masa ini bermakna industri besi Kedah Tua sudah pun matang dan berada pada puncak kegemilangan ketika Empayar Rom sedang berkembang dan memerlukan bekalan besi yang banyak untuk aktiviti ketenteraan mereka. 

3. Jeti Pelabuhan Kuno dan Laluan Perdagangan Maritim

• Runtuhan Jeti Kuno: Penemuan sisa-sisa struktur jeti batu bata purba dan kapal dagang yang tertanam di dasar sungai membuktikan adanya pelabuhan maritim yang sangat sibuk. 
• Laluan Sutera Laut: Kedah Tua (Lembah Bujang) berfungsi sebagai hentian strategik bagi Laluan Sutera Laut yang menghubungkan tamadun Barat (Rom, Parsi, Arab) dan Timur (India, China). Pedang-pedang dari empayar Parsi dan empayar Rom dibina menggunakan bahan mentah besi berkualiti tinggi yang dibeli dalam bentuk jongkong dari pelabuhan Kedah Tua ini. 

Penemuan ini telah mengubah naratif sejarah Asia Tenggara, membuktikan bahawa masyarakat Melayu Kedah Tua merupakan pengeluar logam utama dunia kuno dan bukan sekadar pembekal rempah-ratus atau hasil hutan semata-mata. 

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

17 Julai 2026: 4.32 p.m

NOTE: ANCIENT HISTORY

• Achaemenid Dynasty: a royal house that ruled the Achaemenid Empire, which eventually stretched from Egypt and the Balkans in the west of Central Asia and the Indus Valley in the East. 
• Achaemenid Empire: an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus The Great of the Archaemenid Dynasty in 550 BC> 
• Akkadian Empire: an ancient kingdom established around 2334 BCE and the first empire in world history. Centered in ancient Mesopotamia and its territory is primarily lacated within modern-day Iraq and part of Iran, Syria, Turkey and Kuwait. Established by Sargon of Akkad after defeating the Sumerian King Lugal-zage-si.
• Anatolia: also known as Asia Minor, isa peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. 
• Assyria:  a major ancient Mesopotamia civilisation that existed from the 21st to 7th centuries BC, which conquered and administered of West Asia from the Assyrian heartland in Upper Mesopotamia. Wikipedia : Assyria
• Atlantis : Plato wrote of a powerful island civilisation that sank beneath the sea in a single day and night around 9,600 BCE. 
• Babylonian Empire 
• Location - Mesopotamia between Tigris & Euphrates rivers, capital of Babylon.
• Descendants of the Akkandians, shared roots with Sumerian and Assyrians. 
• Hanging Garden of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. 
• Code of Hammurabi - early legal text. 
• Bronze Age: a major period in human history characterised by the widespread use of bronze to manufacture tools, weapons and armor. It began in the Middle East around 3300 BCE and advanced across Europe and Asia, lasting until its abrupt conclusion around 1200-600 BCE when societies shifted to iron working. 
• Camelot : the legendary court of King Arthur,  a symbol of justice and chivalry - was it a real place or beautiful legend?
• Carthage: was founded around 814 BC by Phoenician settlers. Ancient Carthage was a city-state that ruled an empire through alliances and trade influence that stretched throughout North Africa dan Modern Spain. 
• Chaldea: refers to a region probably located in the marshy land of Southern Mesopotamia. 
• Ciudad Blanca : the "White City" is said to be a hidden civilisation deep in the Honduran jungle, protected by nature itself. 
• Copper Age @ Chalcolithic: an archaeological period characterised by the increasing use of smelted copper. It followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age. 
• Dhar Tichitt and Qualata: prominent among the early urban centres, dated to 2000 BC,in present-day Mauritania. 
• Djenne-Djenno: the civilisation of Djenne-Djenno was located in the Niger River Valley in the country of Mali and is considered to be among the oldest Urbanised centres and the best-known archaeology site in sub-Saharan Africa. 
• Egypt: Ancient Egypt was a long-lived civilisation located in north-eastern Africa. Ancient Egypt developed over at least three and half milennia. 
• El Dorado: A golden city of unimaginable wealth to exist somewhere in South America. Many expeditions searched, but none ever returned with proof. 
• Ghost city of Imet: 
• Hidden in the eastern Nile Delta, Known for Temple of Wadjet, tower house and recent rediscovery.
• Reveals daily life in an ancient Egyptian Delta city. 
• Hellenistic Period: covers the time in Greek, Eastern Mediterranean and Middle Eastern History following Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. 
• Hittites: an Anatolian Indo-European people who formed one of the first major civilisation of the Bronze Age in West Asia. Wikipedia: Hittites
• Homo Erectus : an extinct species of archaic human that lived from roughly 2 million years ago until about 110,000 years ago. It is the longest-surviving human species in history. 
• Homo Sapiens : the species of highly intelligent primates to which all living humans belong. Coined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, the name reflects our unique cognitive capacities. Developing in Africa roughly 300,000 years ago, Homo Sapiens outlasted all other hominin species species to become the sole surviving branch of the human family tree. 
• Indus Valley:Bronze age civilisation - in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE.It spanned much of Pakistan, northwestern India and northeast Afghanistan.
• Iram of the Pillars : a magnificent city described in ancient texts as rich beyong belief, lost in the Arabian Desert over 2,000 years ago. 
• Iron Age: (1200 BC - 550 BC) - the final epoch of the ghree historical Metal Ages, after the Copper Age and Bronze Age. Wikipedia : Iron Age
• Kingdom of Aksum: of Aksumite Empire- a kingdom in North East Africa and South Arabia from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, based in what is now Entrea and Northern Ethiopia, and spanning present-day Djibouti, Sudan, Yemen and Saudi Arabia.  
• Kingdom of Kush:also known as the Kushite Empire, was an ancient Kingdom in Nubia, centered along the Nile Valley in what is now northern Sudan and Southern Egypt. 
• Kitezh: A Russian legend tells of a holy city that vanished beneath a lake to protect itself from invaders - and still appears to those who are pure of heart. 
• Medes: an Iron Age Iranian people who spoke the Median Language, inhabited an area know as Media between western and northern Iran. 
• Mesolithic : the Old world archaeological period between the Upper Paleolithic and the Neolithic (Middle of Stone Age). Alternative names is Epipaleolithic. 
• Mesopotamia: a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris-Euphrates river system. It corresponds roughly to the territory of modern Iraq. 
• Mitanni: (1550-1260 BC) - a Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria and southeast Anatolia (modern day Turkey). 
• Mohenjo Daro : one of the most famous cities of the ancient world. Built around 2600-1900 BC in the Indus Valley, located in Sindh, Pakistan. Known for planned streets and advanced drainage.
• Monte Alban: one of the first major cities in Mesoamerica, which today is known as the Mexican state of Oaxaca. 
• Neo-Assyrian: the 4th and penultimate state of ancient Assyrian history.  Beginning with accession of Adad-niran II in 911 BCE. 
• Neolithic: or New Stone Age, an archaeological period, the final division of the Stone Age in Asia, Europe and Africa (10,000 BC - 2,000 BC). Wikipedia : Neolithic.
• Nineveh: ancient Near Eastern city of Upper Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day city of Mosul in northern Iraq.The largest city on the Neo-Assyrian Empire. 
• Nok Culture: appeared in Nigeria around 1000 BC and mysteriously vanished around 200 AD. 
• Nubis: the Ta- Seti kingdom in Nubia to the south of Egypt was conquered by Egyptian rulers around 3100 BC,but by 2500 BC the Nubian had created a new kingdom known as Kingdom of Kush. 
• Paleolithic : or Old Stone Age - period of human prehistoric technology, extending from the earliest known use of stone toold by Hominins, c. 3.3 million years ago, to the end of the Pleistocene. 
• Parthia: was an Iranian civilisation situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran. The Parthian Empire was led by the Arsacid Dynasty. 
• Persian: an Iranian ethnic group indigenous to the Iranian plateau in West Asia that comprise the majority of the population of modern-day Iran. 
• Phoenicia: an ancient Semitic people who inhabited city-states in Canaan along the Levantine Coast of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily in present-day Lebanon. 
• Prehistory: the period before written history. Most of the knowledge of that period comes from the work of archaeologists. 
• Ptolemaic Kingdom: an ancient Greek polity based in Egypt durign the Hellenistic period. Founded in 305 BC by the Macedonian General Ptolemy I Soter, a companion of Alexander The Great. 
• Sasanian Empire: an Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651 AD. 
• Seleucid Empire: in West Asia during the Hellenistic Period, founded in 312 BC by the Macedonians general Seleucus I Nicator. 
• Stone Age: prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make stone tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years and ended between 4000 BC and 2000 BC. Wikipedia: Stone Age
• Sumerian City-States: (3000-2334 BCE) - Southern Mesopotamia, where cities such as Umma, Uruk, Ur, Lagash and Kish competed for land and influence. It is independent city-states, each with its own ruler, patron god, temples and surrounding farmland. 
• Temple of Solomon : Sacred center of Israel, built by Solomon, the first temple in Jurusalem. It was destroyed by the Babylonians under King Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BC. Built specifically to house the Ark of Covenant, which contained the stone tablets of the Ten Commandments. 
• Zapotec Civilisation: (700 BC - 1521 AD) - an indigenous pre-Columbian civilisation that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca in Mesoamerica. 
• Zerzura: a lost oasis in the Sahara Desert, mentioned in ancient maps and caravan tales, but never found. 

Reference:

1. History: Ancient History
2. Wikipedia : Ancient History

Updated:

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

16 July 2026: 11.45 p.m