CHINESE RECORDS ON MALACCA

1. HSING-CH'A SHENG-LAN

The Hsing-Ch'a Sheng-Lan (often translated as "The Overall Survey of the Starry Raft") is an essential primary source for understanding the early days of the Malacca Sultanate. Written by Fei Hsin, a military clerk who accompanied Admiral Zheng He on several voyages, the 1436 record provides a fascinating "outsider’s perspective" on Malacca’s transition from a fishing village to a global trade hub.

Here is a breakdown of the conditions in Malacca as documented by Fei Hsin:

1. Physical Environment and Infrastructure

Fei Hsin describes Malacca as a land with "mountains that are high and the soil is poor," noting that agriculture was not the primary strength of the region.

• The Fortified City: He mentions a wooden palisade with four gates and watchtowers. This suggests that even by the early 15th century, Malacca was already prioritizing security to protect its growing wealth.
• The Bridge: One of the most famous details is the bridge over the Malacca River, lined with market stalls. This indicates a highly organized commercial layout where trade happened literally on the path between the two halves of the city.

2. Society and Culture

Fei Hsin’s observations of the people are a mix of ethnographic detail and the typical "middle kingdom" bias of the era:

• Appearance: He describes the locals as having "dark skin" and wearing their hair in knots. Men and women wrapped themselves in pieces of cloth (sarongs).
• Lifestyle: The people were noted for being "simple and honest" but also "fierce" when provoked. He observed that they were skilled at maritime activities, reflecting their dependence on the sea.
• Religion: While Islam was beginning to take root, Fei Hsin’s descriptions suggest a society still heavily influenced by local customs and older traditions, though he acknowledges the king’s conversion and the presence of mosques.

3. Economy and Trade

This is where Fei Hsin’s notes become most detailed, as Malacca’s primary value to the Ming Dynasty was its strategic location.

• Resources: He lists local products such as tin (which was cast into blocks called "small pieces"), ebony, and resin.
• The Entrepot: He highlights that Malacca produced very little of its own food (importing rice from Java). Instead, it functioned as a "waiting station" for ships from the West (India/Arabia) and the East (China) to trade goods while waiting for the monsoon winds to shift.
• Currency: He mentions the use of tin coins and the barter of gold, silver, and porcelain.

4. Relationship with China

Fei Hsin’s 1436 notes emphasize Malacca’s status as a vassal state of the Ming Empire. He records how the ruler of Malacca traveled to China to pay tribute and receive a silk robe and a yellow umbrella—symbols of imperial recognition that protected Malacca from its neighbors, particularly the Thai (Siam) kingdom.

"The people of this country are very grateful for the kindness of the Heavenly Dynasty [China]." — Fei Hsin, 1436

It’s interesting to compare Fei Hsin’s account with the Ying-Yai Sheng-Lan (1451) by Ma Huan, who was more focused on the linguistic and religious shifts of the region.

2. HSUAN-TSUNG (XUANDE) SHIH-LU

The Hsuan-tsung (Xuande) Shih-lu (Verbatim Records of Emperor Xuande) serves as the official administrative diary of the Ming court during the reign of the Xuande Emperor (1425–1435). While Fei Hsin’s Hsing-Ch'a Sheng-Lan provides a traveler’s view, the Shih-lu offers a "top-down" look at the political and diplomatic maneuvers between the Ming Empire and the Malay Kingdom (Malacca).

These records are crucial because they document the peak and the eventual wind-down of the Treasure Voyages.

1. Diplomatic Recognition and Sovereignty

The Shih-lu records the frequent arrival of envoys from Malacca. In the eyes of the Ming court, Malacca was a "model" tributary state.

• The 1431 Decree: One of the most significant entries is a decree issued by Xuande to the King of Siam (Ayutthaya). The Shih-lu notes that Malacca’s King, Sri Maharaja, complained of Siamese harassment. The Emperor sent a stern warning to Siam to stop interfering with Malacca, effectively acting as a "security guarantor" for the Malay Kingdom.
• Investiture: The records detail the gifting of the "silver seal" and official robes to the Malaccan rulers, which legitimized their authority in the eyes of other regional powers.

2. The Final Voyages of Zheng He

The Xuande Shih-lu provides the official justification for the seventh and final voyage (1431–1433).

• Restoring the Tribute System: The records state that because many overseas countries had stopped sending tribute during the brief hiatus after the Yongle Emperor’s death, Zheng He was dispatched to "instruct" them on their duties.
• Malacca as the Base: The Shih-lu confirms that Malacca served as the primary "Guan-chang" (Government Depot). It was the logistics hub where the fleet would regroup, store goods, and wait for the monsoon winds.

3. Death of the Malaccan King

A poignant entry in the Shih-lu (dated 1433–1434) records the death of the Malaccan King while he was in China or shortly after his visit.

• The records show that the Emperor ordered a formal funeral sacrifice and provided a ship to carry the King’s son and successor back to Malacca to be officially installed as the new ruler. This illustrates the deep, almost paternalistic, relationship the Ming court felt toward the Malaccan royalty.

Comparison of Perspectives

Feature	Hsing-Ch'a Sheng-Lan (Fei Hsin)	Hsuan-tsung Shih-lu (Official Records)
Focus	Daily life, flora/fauna, and "exotic" customs.	Diplomacy, tribute lists, and legal decrees.
Tone	Descriptive and ethnographic.	Bureaucratic and imperial.
Purpose	To inform and entertain Chinese readers.	To document the Emperor's "virtuous" rule.

Why the 1430s Matter

The records from this decade are bittersweet. While they show Malacca at its most secure under Chinese protection, they also mark the beginning of the Ming Isolationism. After the Xuande Emperor’s death in 1435, the Shih-lu shows a sharp decline in naval funding, leaving Malacca to eventually defend itself against regional rivals and, later, European powers.

Google Gemini AI

12/2/2026: 11.49 p.m

ARCHAELOGICAL DISCOVERY AT MELAKA (2020-2025)

BASTION HENDRICA LOUISA 

The Bastion Hendrica Louisa discovery in 2025 is a landmark archaeological event in Melaka, Malaysia. It offers tangible proof of the pre-colonial "Kota Melaka" (Melaka Fort), bridging the gap between historical Malay chronicles and physical evidence.

In June 2025, archaeologists from the Department of National Heritage (JWN) unearthed the original alignment of the bastion’s walls at the base of the Taman Larangan (Forbidden Garden) stairs, located near the Melaka Sultanate Palace in Banda Hilir.

Key Highlights of the Discovery

• The Structure: The excavation revealed a wall and an oval-shaped bastion. While the name "Hendrica Louisa" is associated with the Dutch administration (which renamed and reinforced the site), researchers believe this discovery exposes the original Malay fortress foundations that were later built over by the Portuguese (A Famosa), Dutch, and British.
• The Moat: Evidence of a surrounding defensive moat was found, estimated to be approximately 5 meters wide and 5 meters deep.
• Timeline: The specific excavation that led to the 2025 announcement took place between May 22 and May 30, 2025.
• Significance: For decades, there was scholarly debate about whether the legendary "Kota Melaka" described in the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) was a grand stone structure or a simple wooden palisade. This discovery confirms the existence of a sophisticated stone defense system prior to and during the early colonial transitions.

Historical Context

The bastion was a critical southern defense point, strategically positioned to guard against both land-based incursions and maritime threats. Its design aligns with 18th-century Dutch maps, but the lower strata of the excavation point to the earlier footprint of the Melaka Sultanate's glory.

Comparison of Fortress Phases

Era	Fortress Name/Status	Key Feature
Melaka Sultanate	Kota Melaka	Original stone and timber city walls.
Portuguese	Fortaleza de Malaca	Rebuilt after 1511; focus on "A Famosa."
Dutch	Victoria / Hendrica Louisa	Renamed bastions; reinforced with Dutch masonry.

Note: The Chief Minister of Melaka has indicated plans to preserve the site and potentially reconstruct a section of the wall (similar to the Middlesbrough Bastion nearby) to serve as an educational and tourism landmark.

SPECIFIC ARTIFACTS FOUND

The 2025 excavation of the Bastion Hendrica Louisa and the surrounding Taman Larangan site yielded a significant collection of artifacts that bridge the gap between the Melaka Sultanate and its subsequent colonial eras.

While the primary "find" was the massive laterite stone structure of the fort itself, archaeologists uncovered smaller objects within the 5-meter-deep moat and the surrounding soil layers that provide a glimpse into daily life and military history.

Primary Artifacts Discovered (2025)

• Laterite Stone Blocks: The most prominent "artifacts" are the large, reddish laterite stones used for the original foundations. These are characteristic of the Melaka Sultanate’s construction style, proving the fort was a grand stone structure rather than just wood.
• Ceramic and Porcelain Shards: Numerous shards of blue-and-white porcelain were found, primarily from the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). These indicate active trade and habitation at the site across several centuries.
• Historical Coins: Excavations revealed a mix of currency, including:
• Melaka Sultanate Coins: Small tin coins (often called "pitis") from the reign of Sultan Mahmud Shah (1488–1511).
• VOC (Dutch East India Company) Coins: Copper coins used during the Dutch administration in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Earthenware: Locally produced pottery shards (cooking pots and storage jars) were found, which are often used to identify the presence of the local Malay population living within or near the fort's perimeter.
• Organic Remains: Timber fragments and traces of original wooden pilings used to stabilize the wall foundations in the muddy soil of the coastal area.

Why these artifacts matter

The discovery of Melaka Sultanate coins alongside laterite foundations is the "smoking gun" for historians. It confirms that the Bastion Hendrica Louisa was not built from scratch by the Dutch, but was a Dutch reinforcement of an existing Portuguese structure, which itself was built upon the ruins of the original Malay Sultanate Fort.

Site Preservation

As of early 2026, the Melaka Museum Corporation (PERZIM) is cataloging these items for future display at the Melaka Sultanate Palace Museum and the Maritime Museum. There are also plans to incorporate the excavation site into an "Archaeo-Tourism" trail, where visitors can view the laterite walls in situ.

PULAU MELAKA ROYAL VESSEL

The Pulau Melaka Shipwreck, often referred to as a "Royal Vessel" or "Aristocratic Ship," is one of the most significant maritime discoveries in Southeast Asian history. Unearthed on reclaimed land between 2020 and 2025, it has fundamentally challenged existing timelines of Melaka’s history.

Discovery Timeline

• 2020: Independent researchers (led by Dr. Dionysius Sharma) discovered wooden planks protruding from the mud during land reclamation works on Pulau Melaka.
• 2021 (Phases 1 & 2): Initial excavations by the National Heritage Department (JWN) and the Melaka Museum Corporation (PERZIM) confirmed the presence of a massive hull.
• 2025 (Phases 3 & 4): Deep excavation (reaching 3–5 meters into mangrove mud) revealed the full scale of the vessel, leading to its official gazettement as a Restricted Heritage Zone in November 2025.

Technical & Historical Significance

The vessel is not just a merchant ship; its construction and contents suggest it belonged to the Malay nobility or the Sultanate's elite.

• Ancient Origins: Radiocarbon dating (conducted in the U.S.) estimates the ship dates back to the 13th century (1200–1300 AD). This suggests a sophisticated maritime civilization existed in the "Melaka Valley" before or during the very early arrival of Parameswara (traditionally dated to 1262 AD or later).
• Massive Dimensions: The ship is estimated to be 50 to 70 meters long, making it significantly larger than most previously discovered regional vessels and comparable in scale to the legendary Mendam Berahi (the royal galley of the Melaka Sultanate).
• Indigenous Engineering: The hull was constructed using local Saga and Merbau hardwoods. Most notably, it used wooden pegs (dowels) rather than metal nails—a hallmark of advanced Malay shipbuilding technology.

Key Artifacts Found On-Site

Category	Details
Currency	Tin coins (pitis) from the reign of Sultan Mahmud Shah (the last Sultan of Melaka).
Ceramics	High-quality Ming Dynasty porcelain and various Chinese ceramic shards, indicating elite trade ties.
Ship Parts	Large structural beams, the bow, flooring, and a well-preserved section of the hull.
Personal Items	Earthenware pottery and organic remains that suggest domestic use on board.

Current Status (2026)

The site is currently under strictly controlled excavation. As of February 2026, conservation teams are performing desalination (removing salt from the wood to prevent it from crumbling upon exposure to air). The Melaka government plans to house the reconstructed vessel in a dedicated museum to showcase ancient Malay maritime prowess.

RUINS BENEATH A FAMOSA

When people speak of the "ruins beneath A Famosa," they are usually referring to a historical irony: the famous Portuguese gate (Porta de Santiago) actually sits on top of the spiritual and political heart of the Melaka Sultanate.

In 2024 and 2025, fresh research and subterranean excavations around the base of St. Paul's Hill (Bukit Melaka) confirmed exactly what lies beneath the colonial stone.

1. The Great Mosque of Melaka

Historical records and recent structural analysis confirm that the Portuguese built the primary keep of A Famosa (the Fortaleza) directly over the ruins of the Great Mosque of Melaka.

• The Foundation: Archaeologists found that the rectangular footprint of the original Portuguese fortress matched the typical layout of 15th-century Malay mosques.
• The Materials: Stones from the mosque and the royal tombs of the Sultans were forcibly repurposed by Alfonso de Albuquerque’s men to build the fortress walls in 1511.

2. The Sultan’s Palace Foundations

While the replica "Melaka Sultanate Palace" stands nearby today, the original 15th-century palace site is buried beneath the layers of Dutch and Portuguese earthworks on the hill.

• The 2025 Discovery: Excavations near the Taman Larangan (the Forbidden Garden of the Sultans) have unearthed older laterite footings that predate European masonry. These are believed to be part of the royal administrative complex that served the Sultanate before the Portuguese conquest.

3. The "Hidden" Drainage and Tunnels

Beneath the surface level of the current ruins, researchers have identified:

• Portuguese Sewerage Systems: A sophisticated network of stone-lined drains and small subterranean chambers used for waste and water management, some of which were accidentally exposed during the construction of the Taming Sari Tower nearby.
• The Secret Passageways: While many "secret tunnels" in Melaka are urban legends, excavations have revealed narrow vaulted stone passages used by the Dutch and Portuguese to move ammunition between the bastions (like the Middelburg and Santiago bastions) without being exposed to enemy fire.

Layered History of the Site

Layer	Era	Found Beneath A Famosa
Top Layer	British (1800s)	Demolition rubble and modified gate structure.
Middle Layer	Dutch (1641–1824)	VOC emblems, brick reinforcements, and bastion upgrades.
Lower Layer	Portuguese (1511–1641)	Massive laterite walls and the Porta de Santiago.
Deepest Layer	Sultanate (<1511)	Laterite mosque foundations, royal artifacts, and Malay coins.

Archaeological Insight: The "Porta de Santiago" we see today is actually a Dutch "renovation" of the Portuguese gate. Beneath its floor lies the transition point where European stone meets the original Malay soil.

Google Gemini AI

12/2/2026: 11.22 p.m

MALAYSIAN HERITAGE BUILDING (3)

 

Dhammikarama Burmese Temple, located in Pulau Tikus, George Town in Penang was established in 1803, the oldest and largest Burmese Buddhist temple in Malaysia. 

Suffolk House, located at Jalan Air Itam, George Town, Penang, Malaysia's only surviving Anglo-Indian Garden House. 

Built around 1804, it was built on the estate originally owned by Captain Francis Light, the founders of the British Colony in Penang. 

Wat Chayamangkalaram, located in the Pulau Tikus, Georgetown, Penang was founded in 1845 by the first monk, Phor Than Kuat, on land granted by Queen Victoria to the Siamese community. It housed a 33-meter gold-plated statue of the Reclining Buddha known as Phra Chaiya Mongkol, one of the largest in the world. 

Snake Temple in Bayan Lepas, Penang, was built in 1850's to honor Chor Soo Kong, a Buddhist priest and healer. Legends says he gave shelter to the snakes of the jungle, after the temple was completed, snakes reportedly moved in on their own. 

The Kek Lok Si Temple,  located at Air Itam, Penang was built in 1890-1905, the original temple was built under the initiative of its founder Venerable Beow Lean. It's early construction was heavily funded by five prominent Hakka tycoons, including Cheong Fatt Tze and Chung Keng Quee. It also received royal support and imperial relics from the Qing Dynasty's Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi in the early 1900's. 

Penang Peranakan Mansion, located at Church Street, Georgetown, Penang, originally named Hai Kee Chan was built in the 1890's. The land was acquired by Chung Keng Quee, a wealthy Chinese tycoon and Kapitan Cina of Perak. 

Penang State Museum and Art Gallery, built in phase between 1896 and 1906, it originally housed the Penang Free School (the oldest English-Medium school in Southeast Asia) until 1927. 

It was destroyed by Allied bombing in 1942 during WW2. 

Sultan Abdul Aziz Royal Gallery, in Klang, Selangor was built in 1909 and was originally known as Sultan Suleiman Building. 

It was officially opened as a Royal Gallery in 2007 by the current Sultan of Selangor, Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah, in honour of his father. 

Hatters Castle, located on Pulau Carey, Selangor was built in 1923, the first colonial-style bungalow constructed on the Island. It was designed and built by a Danish engineer named C.L. Gjorup. Its name was inspired by the 1931 novel "Hatters Castle" by A.J. Cronin. 

It is currently owned and maintained by SD Guthrie (formerly Sime Darby Plantation) and used as a guesthouse for VIPs and staff. 

Rumah P.Ramlee (P.Ramlee House), in Georgetown, Penang stands as a powerful tribute to Malaysia's "Seniman Agung" (The Great Artiste) Tan Sri P.Ramlee. 

Built in 1926 by P.Ramlee's father and uncle, the house was opened as a museum in 1986 to celebrate his contributions to the film and music industry in Malaysia. 

HSBC Bank Branch in Sungai Petani, Kedah, built in 1929, designed in the Indo-Saracenic (or Mughal) style. Located at the junction of Jalan Ibrahim and Jalan Bank, it stands near another landmark the Sungai Petani Clock Tower which was built in 1936 to commemorate the Silver Jubilee of King George V.

Johor Bahru Railway Station, originally built in 1932, it follows a "Neo-classical" influence common in many KTM stations of that era.

The station officially ceased operations in October 2010 when the modern JB Sentral transport hub opened right next to it. Today, it houses the KTM Museum perserving the heritage of the Malaysian railway for visitors. 

Compiled by:

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

12/2/2026: 9.27 p.m

KEDAH SULTANATE: OLDEST IN THE WORLD?

That is a claim that carries a lot of weight and a fair bit of historical nuance! Depending on how you define "oldest," the Sultanate of Kedah (the Kesultanan Kedah) is absolutely a top contender for one of the longest-running continuous monarchies on the planet.

Here is a breakdown of why this claim is so significant and how it holds up against history.

The Origin Story: Hindu to Islamic

The history of the Kedah monarchy is unique because it transitioned through two major eras without a break in the lineage.

• The Hindu-Buddhist Era (630 CE): Traditionally, the line began with Maharaja Derbar Raja I. At this time, the kingdom was known as Kedaram. This dates back much further than most European or Middle Eastern royal houses still in existence today.
• The Islamic Era (1136 CE): The 9th ruler, Maharaja Phra Ong Mahawangsa, converted to Islam and took the title Sultan Mudzaffar Shah. This marks the formal start of the "Sultanate," making it one of the oldest Islamic sultanates in the world.

How It Compares Globally

When people discuss the "oldest" monarchies, it usually comes down to three names:

Monarchy	Estimated Start	Context
Imperial House of Japan	660 BCE (Legendary)	Generally considered the oldest continuous hereditary monarchy.
Sultanate of Kedah	630 CE	One of the oldest continuous lineages in Southeast Asia and the oldest Islamic Sultanate.
Kingdom of Denmark	936 CE	Often cited as the oldest continuous monarchy in Europe.

A Note on Continuity: What makes Kedah special is that the current Sultan, Sultan Sallehuddin, can trace his ancestry directly back to the original Hindu rulers of the 7th century. While empires like the Ottomans or the Mughals have fallen, Kedah's line remained intact through Thai suzerainty, British colonization, and the formation of Malaysia.

Why It Matters

The Sultanate of Kedah isn't just a "title"—it is the living heart of Malay history. It predates the Melaka Sultanate (often considered the "golden age" of Malay history) by several centuries. It proves that the Malay Peninsula was a sophisticated, organized geopolitical entity long before the arrival of Western powers.

Google Gemini AI

12/2/2026: 9.46 a.m

PATTINAPPALAI : KALAGAM AND ANCIENT KEDAH

In the ancient Tamil poem Pattinappalai (dated roughly between the 1st and 2nd century CE), there is a significant reference to a place called Kalagam (or Kazhagam). This is widely believed by historians and archaeologists to refer to Kedah in modern-day Malaysia.

This mention is one of the earliest literary evidences of the "Silk Road of the Sea" connecting South India with Southeast Asia.

The Reference in Pattinappalai

The poem, which primarily extols the Chola port of Puhar (Kaveripoompattinam), describes a bustling international market where goods from various regions were piled high. The specific line (approx. line 191) mentions:

"Kalagaththu-akkam" (Goods/produce from Kalagam)

This is listed alongside other luxury imports arriving at the Chola port, such as:

1. Horses from across the seas (likely Arabia or Central Asia).
2. Black pepper from the inland hills.
3. Gems and gold from the northern mountains.
4. Sandalwood and Eaglewood from the Western Ghats.
5. Foodstuffs from Eelam (Sri Lanka).

Why Kalagam is identified as Kedah

The identification of Kalagam with Kedah (specifically the Bujang Valley) is based on several linguistic and historical threads:

• Etymology: The word Kalagam is considered a Tamil variation of the Sanskrit Kataha or the Malay Kedah. In later Chola inscriptions (11th century), the region is more explicitly called Kadaram.
• Trade Commodities: The "produce of Kalagam" mentioned in the poem likely refers to iron, tin, and high-quality jungle products (like resins and rare woods). Recent excavations at Sungai Batu in Kedah have revealed an extensive iron-smelting industry dating back to the same era as the Pattinappalai.
• Navigational Route: Kedah was the first landfall for Indian sailors crossing the Bay of Bengal. Ships utilized the monsoon winds to sail directly from the Coromandel Coast to the Malay Peninsula.

Historical Significance

• Early Contact: It proves that Tamil merchants were not just aware of Southeast Asia but had established a "brisk sea-borne trade" with it as early as 2,000 years ago.
• Cosmopolitan Society: The poem describes Puhar as a place where people of different languages lived together peacefully, suggesting that trade with places like Kalagam led to a very early form of globalization.
• Foundation for the Chola Empire: These early trade links laid the groundwork for the later, more famous naval expeditions of Rajendra Chola I in the 11th century, who conquered "Kadaram" (Kedah) to secure these same trade routes.

SUNGAI BATU

The archaeological finds at Sungai Batu (located within the larger Bujang Valley complex in Kedah, Malaysia) have provided ground-breaking evidence that aligns with the Sangam-era descriptions in Pattinappalai.

While traditional history once suggested Indian influence only began around the 5th century CE, Sungai Batu pushes this timeline back significantly, revealing a highly organized industrial port that was active during—and even before—the time the poem was composed.

1. The "Produce of Kalagam": A Global Iron Hub

The Pattinappalai mentions "the produce of Kalagam" (Kalagaththu-akkam) being imported to South India. Archaeologists have discovered that Sungai Batu was not just a transit port, but a massive iron-smelting center.

• Scale of Industry: Excavations have revealed over 17 smelting sites and nearly 2 million tuyeres (clay pipes used to blow air into furnaces).
• Standardized Ingots: The site produced high-quality iron ingots that were likely the primary export. This matches later Arab and Indian records that praised "Qalai" or "Kadaram" iron for making superior swords.
• Technological Links: The bloomery method and the design of the furnaces used at Sungai Batu show remarkable similarities to ancient smelting techniques found in South India, suggesting a shared technological pool or direct transfer of expertise.

2. Ancient Jetty and Port Architecture

Pattinappalai describes Puhar as a port where ships from Kalagam docked. At Sungai Batu, researchers have unearthed the oldest man-made jetty structures in Southeast Asia.

• The Brick Wharves: Radiocarbon dating (using AMS) of charcoal samples near these brick structures dates them to the 2nd or 3rd century CE (with some controversial dates going as far back as 500–700 BCE).
• Submerged Ships: Remains of ancient timber boats (approx. 12–30 meters long) were found buried in the ancient riverbed, which used to be much wider and deeper, allowing large merchant vessels from the Bay of Bengal to sail directly to the industrial heart of the city.

3. Religious and Ritual Sites

The poem mentions a cosmopolitan society with various religious practices. Sungai Batu features a unique circular brick monument (Site SB1B) dated to around 110 CE.

• Pre-Indic Influence: While later Bujang Valley sites (5th–11th century) are clearly Hindu-Buddhist (Candis), the early Sungai Batu ritual site is unique. It features a circular base that some scholars believe represents early animistic or sun-worship practices of the local population, who later integrated Hindu-Buddhist styles (like the Vimana-Mandapa) as trade with India intensified.

4. Direct Artifactual Evidence

Beyond the large structures, smaller finds provide the "smoking gun" for Sangam-era trade:

• Pottery and Ceramics: Fragments of Rouletted Ware, a specific type of pottery common in the Roman Empire and South Indian ports (like Arikamedu), have been found in the region.
• Beads: Thousands of "Indo-Pacific" glass beads, manufactured using techniques common in South India, indicate a shared fashion and trade economy.
• Inscriptions: Although many are from a slightly later period (5th century), the discovery of stone tablets with Pallava Grantha script confirms that the writing system of the Tamil country was the "lingua franca" of the Bujang Valley's elite and merchant classes.

Summary Table: Literature vs. Archaeology

Pattinappalai Description	Archaeological Find at Sungai Batu
"Goods from Kalagam"	Massive iron smelting workshops and ingots.
"Vast merchant ships"	2,000-year-old wrecks and massive brick jetties.
"Bustling international port"	Warehouses, administrative buildings, and trade beads.
"1st - 2nd Century CE context"	Radiocarbon dates confirming activity since ~110 CE.

 

Reference:

1. Wikipedia : Bujang Valley
2. Wikipedia : Sungai Batu
3. Jabatan Warisan Negara: Sungai Batu

Google Gemini AI

11/2/2026: 8.53 p.m

SUI SHU (THE BOOK OF SUI) : THE KINGDOM OF CHI TU

The Sui Shu (Book of Sui) and the Tongdian (Comprehensive Institutions) are invaluable windows into Southeast Asian history, specifically regarding the kingdom of Chitu (赤土, meaning "Red Earth").

Chi Tu (also spelled Chihtu or Sanskrit : Raktamaritika or Raktamrittika, Malay : Tanah Merah).

The Inscribed Buddhagupta Stone found in Kedah mentioned a Raktamrittika, meaning "Red Earth Land". 

While the texts don't use the modern term "Austronesian," your assessment aligns with the consensus of modern historians and linguists. Based on the descriptions provided by the Sui envoys, Chitu was a highly organized, Indianized polity likely located in the Malay Peninsula (specifically near the Kelantan river basin).

Evidence from the Sui Shu & Tongdian

The historical records provide several clues that point to Chitu being an Austronesian/Malay-related civilization:

• Geographic Location: The Sui Shu describes Chitu as being south of Linyi (Champa) and reachable by sea. Its "Red Earth" description matches the laterite soil common in the Kelantan region of Malaysia (Tanah Merah).
• Cultural Practices: The texts mention specific customs, such as:
• Piercing ears and wearing floral patterns.
• The use of rose-colored cloth (man)—a likely precursor to the sarong.
• A sophisticated court hierarchy that resembles other early Malay-Austronesian kingdoms like Langkasuka.
• Political Structure: The King of Chitu, surnamed Li-fo-duo-se, sent his son to the Sui court in 607 CE. This level of maritime diplomacy was a hallmark of early Malay states managing trade routes through the South China Sea.

Comparison of the Sources

Feature	Sui Shu (Book of Sui)	Tongdian (by Du You)
Origin	Compiled in the early Tang Dynasty.	Compiled during the mid-Tang Dynasty.
Focus	Official annals of diplomatic missions (607–610 CE).	An encyclopedic history of customs and geography.
Chitu Insight	Details the voyage of Chang Chun to the kingdom.	Highlights the kingdom's role in the regional trade network.

Connecting to the Austronesian Group

The Chitu people were part of the broader Austronesian expansion. By the time the Sui envoys arrived, these people had already:

1. Developed advanced maritime technology (outrigger canoes and sailing ships).
2. Established "Mandala" political systems, where power radiated from a center rather than having fixed borders.
3. Synthesized local Austronesian traditions with Hindu-Buddhist influences from India (as noted in the Sui Shu mentioning many Brahmans in the Chitu court).

Note: The Sui Shu specifically mentions that the Chitu people were "of the same race as the people of Funan," which suggests a shared cultural and ethnic substrate across the Gulf of Thailand during that era.

CHITU KING'S PALACE

According to the Sui Shu (Book of Sui), specifically the records of the envoy Chang Chun who visited in 607 CE, the palace of the Chitu (Red Earth) King was a testament to the "Indianized" grandeur of early Malay/Austronesian polities.

The descriptions in both the Sui Shu and the Tongdian highlight a blend of maritime wealth and deep religious devotion.

The Capital and the Palace Gates

The capital city was known as Seng-chih (likely a transliteration of the Sanskrit Singha or "Lion City").

• The Gates: The city was accessed through three successive gates spaced about a hundred paces apart.
• Decoration: These gates were painted with vibrant, "shining" colors and adorned with carved spirits and golden flower ornaments.
• The Sound of Chitu: Small golden bells hung from the gates, which chimed in the wind—a common feature in early Southeast Asian royal architecture intended to ward off evil and announce the king's prestige.

The Royal Court and Audience Hall

The King's palace was built with a distinctive orientation and architectural style:

• Orientation: Unlike Chinese palaces that typically face south, all buildings in the Chitu palace faced north. The King sat on a multi-tiered throne, also facing north.
• Structure: The palace was supported by numerous large wooden pillars. The interior was lavishly decorated with rose-colored cloth and intricate hangings.
• The Throne Room: On either side of the King’s throne were two large metal mirrors and golden vessels filled with perfumes. Behind him, hundreds of soldiers stood guard, while the floor in front was often occupied by hundreds of Brahmans (priests) seated in rows.

The King’s Appearance

The texts describe the King (named Li-fo-duo-se) in a way that emphasizes his wealth and the region's resources:

• Attire: He wore a rose-colored robe and a high golden crown shaped like a lotus flower.
• Jewelry: He was heavily adorned with jewelry, specifically precious stones and pearls, and wore multiple gold rings and bracelets.
• Bodyguards: He was flanked by four female attendants and a personal guard of over a hundred men, some of whom were described as wearing "white clothing" and carrying baskets of flowers to strew along his path.

Cultural Significance

These descriptions are vital because they prove that by the early 7th century, the Austronesian people in the Malay Peninsula had:

• High-level Metallurgical Skills: Evidenced by the golden crowns, bells, and metal mirrors.
• Sophisticated Textiles: The frequent mention of "rose-colored" cloth suggests a developed dyeing and weaving industry.
• Religious Synthesis: The presence of Brahmans and Buddhist imagery (Sui Shu mentions the King's father abdicated to spread Buddhism) shows a "Mandala" state where Indian religions were integrated into local governance.

Fun Fact: When the Sui envoys arrived, their ship was towed into the harbor by thirty small boats and pulled by a massive gold-plated chain, a gesture of extreme hospitality and a display of the kingdom's immense wealth.

Further readings:

1. Sejarah Kelantan: The Red-Earth Land (Tanah Merah).
2. Wikipedia: Chi Tu

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11/2/2026: 1.30 p.m

ABU DULAF MIS'AR IBN MUHALHIL - ANCIENT KEDAH

Abu Dulaf Mis’ar ibn Muhalhil, a 10th-century Arab-Persian traveler and poet from Bukhara, provides one of the most vivid (though historically debated) early descriptions of ancient Kedah, which he referred to as Kalah.

His accounts are primarily found in his second travelogue, Al-Risalah al-thaniyah (c. 940 CE). Here is a breakdown of his key observations and the significance of his writing:

1. Description of the City and Infrastructure

Abu Dulaf describes Kalah as a highly developed and fortified city, a stark contrast to the typical "jungle outpost" imagery of the era.

• Fortified Walls: He notes that Kalah was the only coastal port in the region protected by high walls and stone forts.
• Aesthetics: He writes of beautiful flower gardens and flowing water from natural springs within the city.
• Urban Life: He mentions a bustling society with organized markets and people who wore clean cotton clothes.

2. The Famous "Qala’i" Swords

One of the most significant parts of his account is his mention of the local industry.

• Weaponry: He describes the production of Qala’i swords, which were highly prized. He identifies them as "original Indian (Hindi) swords" forged within the city of Kalah.
• Tin Mines: Abu Dulaf explicitly mentions the presence of vast tin mines. He claims the quality of the tin (which Arabs called al-qala’i) was incomparable to any other in the world. This is a clear reference to the rich mineral deposits of the Malay Peninsula.

3. Culture and Religious Ambiguity

Abu Dulaf’s observations on the culture and religion of the people in Kalah offer a mix of insight and confusion:

• Dietary Habits: He noted that the inhabitants ate dates, bread, and wheat flour, which suggested to him a significant influence from Arab/Persian trade.
• The King’s Allegiance: He famously claimed that the King of Kalah mentioned the "Emperor of China" in his Friday sermons and prayed in the Emperor’s direction.

Note: Historians like Vladimir Minorsky suggest Abu Dulaf might have been confused; the King was likely paying homage to the Srivijayan Maharaja or simply maintaining a strong political/economic alliance with China rather than literally worshipping the Emperor.

4. Historical Authenticity

While Abu Dulaf’s accounts are invaluable, they are treated with a degree of caution by modern scholars (such as G.R. Tibbetts):

• The "Traveler's Tale" Factor: Some historians argue that Abu Dulaf might have compiled stories from other sailors rather than visiting every location himself.
• Corroboration: Despite these doubts, his descriptions of the tin mines and the city’s role as a major emporium match archaeological findings in the Bujang Valley (Kedah), where iron smelting and ancient jetties have been unearthed.

Summary Table: Abu Dulaf's Kalah

Feature	Abu Dulaf's Observation
Location	A major port on the route between Arabia and China.
Key Resource	Exceptional tin mines (al-qala’i).
Exports	Swords, tin, bamboo, and camphor.
Defense	Surrounded by high walls and forts.
Society	Cosmopolitan, influenced by Arab and Chinese culture.

BUJANG VALLEY

Modern archaeology has provided startling corroboration for many of Abu Dulaf’s 10th-century claims, particularly regarding the industry and scale of ancient Kedah (Kalah). While some of his more "fantastical" descriptions remain unproven, recent excavations at Sungai Batu have turned his "traveler's tales" into historical reality.

1. The "Qala’i" Sword & Iron Industry

Abu Dulaf famously wrote that Kalah produced superior "Indian" swords and was a center for metallurgy.

• Archaeological Match: Excavations at the Sungai Batu site (part of the larger Bujang Valley complex) have unearthed a massive iron-smelting industry dating as far back as 788 BCE.
• The Findings: Thousands of tons of iron slag, tuyeres (clay pipes for furnaces), and ancient furnaces have been discovered. This confirms that Kedah was not just a trading post but a heavy industry hub for over a millennium, making Abu Dulaf’s 10th-century report of high-quality blade production highly plausible.

2. Infrastructure: Forts and Jetties

Abu Dulaf described Kalah as a city with "high walls," "stone forts," and "flowing springs."

• Archaeological Match: While a single massive "city wall" surrounding the entire valley hasn't been found, archaeologists have discovered sturdy river jetties made of brick and stone.
• The Findings: The remains of administrative buildings and a highly organized port layout at Sungai Batu support the idea of a sophisticated, fortified urban center. The "stone forts" he mentioned may have been the Candis (temple-shrines) or specialized brick structures used for port administration, which would have looked like fortifications to a distant traveler.

3. The Tin Trade (Al-Qala’i)

Abu Dulaf claimed the world’s best tin came from Kalah, giving rise to the Arabic term al-qala’i for tin.

• Archaeological Match: Chemical analysis of artifacts in the region confirms the extraction and use of local tin.
• The Findings: While iron is the "superstar" find at Sungai Batu, the broader Bujang Valley has yielded various metal artifacts. The presence of tin ingots in shipwrecks along the Malacca Strait corroborates Abu Dulaf’s claim that Kedah was the primary source of this metal for the Abbasid world.

4. International Cosmopolitanism

Abu Dulaf noted that the people wore cotton and had dietary habits (like eating bread) similar to Arabs.

• Archaeological Match: The valley is a "treasure chest" of global trade goods.
• The Findings: Archaeologists have found Middle Eastern glassware, Persian ceramics, and Chinese porcelain alongside Indian beads. This confirms that by the 10th century, Kedah was a truly globalized entrepôt where a traveler like Abu Dulaf would have found familiar foreign luxuries and a population deeply integrated into the maritime Silk Road.

Comparison Summary

Abu Dulaf's Description	Archaeological Status	Evidence Found
Superior Swords	Confirmed	Massive iron-smelting sites at Sungai Batu (oldest in SE Asia).
Vast Tin Mines	Confirmed	Extensive evidence of tin trade and regional mining.
City Walls/Forts	Partially Confirmed	Massive brick jetties and administrative buildings discovered.
Arab/Chinese Influence	Confirmed	Abundance of Middle Eastern glass and Chinese ceramics.

SUNGAI BATU

The archaeological site of Sungai Batu, part of the greater Bujang Valley, has revolutionized our understanding of ancient Kedah. It proves that the "Kalah" described by Abu Dulaf was not just a myth, but the most advanced iron-production hub in Southeast Asia.

1. The Iron-Smelting Process at Sungai Batu

Archaeologists have identified that Sungai Batu utilized the bloomery method, a process that required massive amounts of local resources and sophisticated knowledge of heat management.

• Raw Materials: The site was chosen because Hematite and Magnetite (iron ores) were abundant within a 5km radius. To fuel the intense heat, they used local rubber wood and other hardwoods to produce charcoal.
• The Furnaces: Over 10 iron-smelting workshops have been excavated. The furnaces were circular, clay-lined structures with a diameter of about 1 to 2 meters. These were "domed" or shaft furnaces designed to reach temperatures high enough to separate iron from impurities (slag).
• The Tuyeres (Air Conduits): Perhaps the most significant find is the 2 million clay pipes (tuyeres) discovered at the site. These were inserted into the furnace at specific angles to pump oxygen using manual bellows, allowing the furnace to reach the extreme temperatures necessary for smelting.
• The Product: The result was "iron blooms"—spongy masses of iron. These were then reheated and hammered to remove slag, creating high-purity iron ingots. These ingots were the "raw gold" of the ancient world, exported as far as the Roman Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate to be forged into the famous swords Abu Dulaf wrote about.

2. Map & Location of the Sites

The Sungai Batu site is located in the Kuala Muda District of Kedah, specifically near the town of Merbok and Bedong.

• Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex: * Coordinates: 5.7275° N, 100.4908° E
• Context: It is situated in an oil palm estate near the Merbok-Semeling road, about 10km from Sungai Petani.
• The Bujang Valley Archaeological Museum: * Coordinates: 5.7391° N, 100.4145° E
• Distance: Located about 9km west of the Sungai Batu site at the foot of Mount Jerai. This museum houses the artifacts (swords, beads, and ingots) found during the excavations.

Visualizing the Landscape (The Ancient Harbor)

2,000 years ago, the sea level was much higher. The Sungai Batu site sat on the edge of a wide, deep river (the ancient Sungai Muda/Merbok) that flowed directly into the Strait of Malacca.

Archaeologists have found brick jetties and a ritual monument (Site SB1B) that faced Mount Jerai. This monument, a circular brick structure dating to 110 AD, is the oldest man-made structure in Southeast Asia and served as a landmark for incoming ships—exactly the "fortified coastal port" vibe Abu Dulaf later described.

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11/2/2026: 12.56 p.m