IIUM Journel of Religon and Civilisation Studies (IJECS) 2:1 (2019); 53-72. Copyright © IIUM Press
Dato’
Seri Dr. Md. Salleh Yaapar is Professor in Comparative Literature in School of
Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia. He can be reached at mdsalleh@usm.my.
Abstract: This paper
attempts to explore the history of the Malay Navigation and Maritime trade
which started during the third century. The goal of this paper is to identify
the significant yet relatively not widely-known contribution of the Malays
during ancient times in the history of navigation and maritime trade. This
research is very important because it provides an insight into the trading
mechanisms, ship construction, and maritime navigational skills of the Malays,
which have been documented in ancient Chinese literary works. This paper
focuses on the Malays, Malay navigation, and Malay maritime trade in ancient
times. The method used for this research is secondary analysis of existing
historical and anthropological data and sources. This study discovered that the Malays during ancient
times possessed sophisticated navigational skills, were skilled at constructing
large ships, and travelled and traded with countries as far away as the Middle
East and Africa.
Keywords: Navigation,
Maritime, Malay/Melayu, Malacca, Srivijaya, China,India.
Introduction
The Malays are made up
of a huge racial group originally based in Sundaland
(Benua Sunda), now normally referred to as the Malay Archipelago or Southeast
Asia (Oppenheimer, 1998; Santos, 2005). Since the last Ice Age, they have been
widely scattered within the Malayo-Polynesian World
– to the north as far up as Taiwan, to the south until New Zealand, to the east
until Easter Island, and to the west until
Madagascar. Their socio-cultural activities
and achievements, especially the
core Malays in the Archipelago, have long been known and of interest to the
outside world, though not much within the community itself.
Thematically, this
paper will concentrate
on Malay navigation and maritime trade as reflected in
their socio-economic history and anthropological profiles. In the following
discussion, the term “Malays/ Melayu” refers mainly to the core group in the
Malay Archipelago, but in certain cases includes those within the rest of the
Malayo-Polynesian World.
The
Malays
Historically, the
Malays and their lands were known worldwide at least since the second century.
The Greco-Egyptian scholar, Ptolemy
(90-168 C.E.), for example, in his book Geographia (152 C.E.) referred to them
as Μαλεου Κώλον (“Maleu-Kolon”).
Specifically, the term refers
to the western part of the Golden Chersonese, i.e. the Malay Peninsula.
The name “Kunlun” has also been noted down in Nanchouiwuchih
(南州異 物志)
by Wan Zhen (万震), a well-known Chinese historian of the
third century (Wang, 1968, pp. 60-64). In both accounts, the Malays were highlighted for
their navigational skills and trading abilities.
In terms of
nation-building and foreign relations, by 535 B.C.E., there was Kedah Tua towards the north-western
side of the Peninsula. The state was already engaged in export-oriented iron
smelting activities. In the seventh century, there was a kingdom known by the
name of Melayu near Jambi, in Sumatera. It was later incorporated into a bigger
kingdom (then empire) called Srivijaya, based at nearby Palembang. Though based
in Sumatera, the empire had tremendous influence on other islands in the
Archipelago as well as on Champa and Funan, in what is now Indo-China. In Java, for example, its king, Dharanindra, built the famous Borobudur in 770 C.E.; King Samaratungga completed it in 825
C.E.
Srivijaya
remained in power until the 14th century
with a lasting unifying effect on the Malay Archipelago and
part of Indo-China. Numerous groups in the region,
including Champa, recognised their shared identity and referred to themselves
as Melayu (Malays), with their homelands called tanah Melayu (Malay lands). In
the Archipelago, this includes Jambi, Palembang, Minangkabau, Siak, Kampar,
Rokan, Pane, Kampe, Aru, Mandaileng, Tumiang, Perlak, Samudra, Lamuri/ Aceh,
and Barus in Sumatera, as well as Langkasuka, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, etc. in
the Malay Peninsula (Andaya, 2001, p. 32).
Srivijaya had a long
history of mercantile, cultural, and religious ties with India, China, and the
Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. Around 860 C.E., for example, Sri Maharaja Balaputra built a
monastery at Nalanda University, in Bihar, India. In 1006 C.E., Sri Vijaya Maravijayattungavarman
constructed Chudamani Vihara in Nagapatinnam, Tamil Nadu. In fact, long before
that, Srivijaya had been the stopping point for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims on
their way to India.
In 671 C.E., for
example, a Tang Dynasty monk, I-Tsing, travelling
in a Persian ship, stopped by Srivijaya and its vassal state, Kedah Tua, on his
way to study Buddhism in Nalanda. In Srivijaya, he studied Sanskrit, Malay, and
Buddhism for six months, before proceeding to India on a large ship belonging
to the Raja of Srivijaya. Later, I-Tsing returned to Srivijaya and stayed from
689 C.E. to 695 C.E., studying and translating books on various aspects of
Buddhism (I-Tsing, Muller, & Takakusu, 2006).
Like the third century
Wan Zhen, I-Tsing referred to the Malays as “Kunlun”. Regarding their
appearance, he noted that, “Kunlun people have curly hair, dark bodies, bare
feet and they wear sarongs”. This description fits the famous 526-539 C.E.
sketch of a Langkasuka Malay diplomat to Liang Dynasty China shown below. Like
I-Tsing, the Tang Dynasty Chinese were, in general, familiar with
the Malay language and referred to it as Kunlun-yu.
The Malay language has
numerous branches and variants. Among them is the Ma’anyan language
which was spread from the Malay Archipelago to faraway Madagascar by waves
of incredible maritime migrations. One of the migrations specifically took
place approximately
1200 years during the
period of Srivijaya from the present region of Kalimantan in Indonesia in the
ninth century, around 830 C.E. (Murray et al., 2012). In Madagascar, the Malays became the ancestors of
the Malagasy people, with
their well-known Merina Kingdom.
Meanwhile, Ma’anyan developed into what is now referred to as the Malagasy
language, which is still widely spoken in Madagascar (Otto, 1991).
Meanwhile, Islam came to the Archipelago as
early as 674 C.E., with the establishment of a Muslim settlement in
Sumatera headed by an Arab. However, intensive Islamic da‘wah was started only
in the early
12th century, by
various faqirs and shaykhs. Thus, Hindu-Buddhism was slowly replaced by Islam.
Local documents indicate that the first Malay states to accept Islam were
Samudra and Perlak in Sumatera. The states were later merged as Pasai which
ultimately became the first centre of Islamic learning in the Malay
Archipelago.
The process of
Islamisation was stepped up during the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century. Malacca soon replaced Sriwijaya
which ceased to exist in the 14th
century. Its entrepôt was, for a long time, a thriving trading centre, a
meeting point between merchants from China, India, Arabia, Persia, and even
Europe. Along with the traders also came Islamic preachers. Thus, from Malacca,
Islam and the Malay language (with the Jawi script) were quickly spread to the
four corners of the Archipelago. Later, both Islam and the Malay language would
become important indicators of Malay identity within the Malay Archipelago and
parts of Indo-China, especially Champa.
Unfortunately, in 1511,
Malacca was attacked, captured, and colonised by the Portuguese. It was later
taken over by the Dutch, and finally colonised by the British until Malaya’s
(later Malaysia) independence in 1957. At the time of the Portuguese attack,
Malacca was still a bubbling international commercial centre, a Venice of the
East, with merchants coming from all over the world.
Malay
Navigation
To discuss Malay
navigation in the past, it is important to note that it was closely related to
international maritime commerce going back at least to the third century B.C.E.
During this time, there was already a network of maritime trade routes
stretching all the way from Western Europe to East Asia and down the east coast
of Africa. Within this very early and vast network, Malay traders and
navigators were already very much in action. In discussing Chinese maritime commerce
and shipping during the Han dynasty (206
B.C.E. to 221 B.C.), Hill (2004), for example, points out that:
Roman and Arab ships dominated the
Egypt to India trade, but most of the trade between India and China was carried
by Malay, Indonesian and Indian ships. It seems it was only
later that Chinese ships regularly travelled to India. It was rare, however,
for Chinese or Roman citizens to make the complete round trip journey between
China and Egypt.
Hill (2004) goes on to
say that, “Some of these ships were very large for their day and are said to
have carried up to a thousand passengers and cargoes of over a thousand
tonnes.” This is in line with the observation made by a third century Chinese
historian, Wan Zhen. According to the historian, the Kunlun were great ship builders, sailors, and traders.
They built and sailed large vessels known as “Kunlun-po”
(Malay ship), measuring 200 feet long, 20 feet high above water, with four
sails, cargos of 900 tons, and 600-700 people (Wang, 1968).
Indeed, the Malays were among the first people to be involved in giant- size
shipbuilding, advanced navigation, and long-distance maritime trade.
According to Lynda Norene Shaffer (1996, p. 12), by at least the third century
B.C.E, the Chinese had witnessed Malay sailors and traders approaching their
shores in huge ocean-going vessels (Kunlun-po, colandiophonta) from the
so-called Kunlun islands in the southern seas. They were also
aware of the fact that the islanders were exceptional navigators. As sailors,
they were not technically equipped with compasses, maps, or charts. Rather,
they sailed and journeyed across oceans only with the aid of “celestial
navigation”. As Shaffer puts it, quoting from Taylor (1976):
The Malay sailors were highly skilled
navigators, sailing over the oceans for thousands of miles without a compass or
written chart. They navigated by the winds and the stars, by the shape and
colour of the clouds, by the colour of the water, and by swell and wave
patterns on the ocean’s surface. They could locate an island when they were
still like 30 miles from its shores by analysing the behavior of various birds,
the animal and the plant life in the water, and the patterns of swell and waves (Shaffer, 1996, pp.11-12).
The Chinese at that
time were also aware of the fact that the Malays were skilled and innovative
builders of the large ocean-going vessels. In fact, they learnt a lot about
shipbuilding technology from the latter. Again, as Shaffer puts it, quoting
from Johnstone (1980):
The Chinese also knew
these islanders as builders and as the crews of ocean-going vessels engaged in
long-distance overseas trade. The Chinese, in fact, appear to
have learnt much from these sailors. The Malays independently invented a sail,
made from woven mats reinforced with bamboo, at least several hundred years
B.C.E., and by the time of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E. to 221 B.C.) the Chinese
were using such sails (Shaffer, 1996, pp. 11-12).
On average, the jong
could carry four to five hundred metric tons, but at least one was large enough
to carry a thousand tons. The planks of the ships were joined with dowels; no
metal was used in their construction. On some of the smaller vessels, parts
might be lashed together with vegetable fibres, but this was not typical of
larger ships. The jong usually had from two to four masts plus a bowsprit, as
well as two rudders mounted on its sides. Outrigger devices, designed to
stabilise a vessel, were used on many ships but probably were not
characteristic of ships that sailed in rough oceans (p. 13).
Additionally, in
the history of
international navigation, Malay sailors were also the
first to use the balance-lug sail for their jongs and ghalis (galleys).
This has been recognised as an invention of global significance.
Balance-lugs are square
sails set fore and aft and tilted down at the end. They can be pivoted
sideways, which makes it possible to sail into the oncoming wind at an angle of
to tack against the wind – to sail at an angle first one way and then the other,
in a zigzag pattern, so as to go in the direction from which the wind is
blowing. Because of the way the sides of the sail were tilted, from a distance
it looked somewhat triangular (Shaffe, 1996, p. 13).
The Malay square
balance-lug is not only significant in that it could be used to sail into the
oncoming wind. More than that, it has also given the inspiration to the
triangular lateen sails later developed by sailors of other nations and regions.
Malay ingenuity in
navigation was still observed during the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th
century. However, the size of the ships was slightly reduced. Mendam Berahi (Supressed Desire), the famous ocean-going
ghali (galley) of Sultan Mahmud Shah, for example, was only 180 feet long, with
three sails, 100 peddles, and a capacity for 400 crews and fighters.
However, Malacca’s
ghalis and jongs were generally still bigger than contemporary Chinese ships.
Thus, according to the Portuguese chronicler, Tomé Pires,
in his Suma Oriental of 1515, in Canton, the vessels of Malacca were
usually asked to anchor far from the harbour. This is because their big size
could be dangerous to Chinese ships which were mostly smaller. In
fact, Malacca’s ghalis and jongs were also bigger compared to the Portuguese
galleon. When he was in the midst of attacking Malacca, Afonso de Albuquerque,
for example, was shocked to see them, and referred to them as “World Shakers”.
Today the Malays in
very diverse ethnic and sub-ethnic groups are found in a vast world extending
continuously from Madagascar off the east African coast in the west, through
the vast Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia, to the
Hawaiian islands and
Easter island in
the far east of the Pacific Ocean
and to New Zealand and the Chatham islands in the deep south of the Pacific
Ocean and to Taiwan in the north, in all covering about 2/3 of the southern
hemisphere (p. 33).
The following
section will discuss
the Malay maritime
trading activities and their achievements.
Malay
Maritime Trade
Malay maritime trade started in the
third century B.C.E alongside with, and in close
association with, Malay navigation. In fact, trade or commerce was the main
motivation for the Malays to “navigate across seven oceans” and to travel as
far away as China, India, the Islamic Caliphate states, and Madagascar.
Generally, where ever they went, the Malay navigators and sailors carried with
them local products from the Malay Archipelago, or those that were brought to
their shores, and those which they purchased from overseas.
Historians indicate that in the first
century C.E., vast fleets of Malay outrigger ships went back and forth to Aden
in the Middle East, and some Malays even settled there (Shaffer, 1996, p. 16).
They were supplying the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean markets mainly with
cinnamon (kayu manis), a popular spice product among the people there.
At the same time, Malay
sailors also travelled to as far as the East African coastal states, as well as
to Madagascar, where many of them settled down. Aside from cinnamon, they
always carried with them various other flora and fauna, including bananas,
coconuts, cocoyams (keladi), and chicken, as well as the famous
Malayo-Polynesian musical instrument - the xylophone. Aside from economic
gains, the Malay trading activities had long lasting socio-cultural impacts,
too. For example, κανέλα or kanela, the Greek word for cinnamon, is ultimately
derived from the Malay word kayu manis, through Phoenician and Hebrew languages
(Hill, 2004). Similarly, edi the Igbo word for cocoyam is derived from the
Malay word keladi. As discussed earlier, Malay communities who settled in
Madagascar contributed even more, socio- culturally, for they themselves became
the ancestors of the present-day Malagasy people, who dominate the huge island
nation. Additionally, the Malayo-Polynesian Ma’anyan language which they
brought from the Borneo part of Srivijaya is still widely spoken.
As indicated in the previous section, in East Asia, the Malays had long been trading with the Chinese. In fact, they were the first to initiate the shuttle trade with the East Asian giant, specifically in the third century C.E. In the long history of Malay commercial activities with China, among agricultural products exported to the country were rice and areca nut, including its palm, known in the Malay language as pokok pinang. Rice and its plant, pokok padi, were mostly exported to the southern region of China by the Champa Malays during the Song Dynasty (960-1279). The Champa variety of rice was very much favoured by the Chinese for various reasons. First, it was drought-resistant. Second, it ripened even faster than the existing local Chinese varieties. Third and finally, it could be cultivated on terraces around hilly slopes. Thus, by 1012, the Champa rice was introduced even in the lower Yangzi and Huai river regions (Embree, 2015, p. 839).
The other agricultural
product exported by the Malay traders to China was the areca nut and its palm.
The product was so well-received that the palm was extensively cultivated,
especially in Guangdong, Yunnan, and Fujian (Kong, 2010, p. 60). In fact, even the
Malay term, pinang, was adopted and became bing lang in Mandarin.
Malay maritime trade
was at one of its heights during the Srivijaya period which in China, more or
less, coincided with the Tang and Song dynasties. Srivijaya’s power was based
on its control of international sea trade of the day. Her main concern was to
secure highly lucrative trade arrangements with China, and to a certain extent,
India and Arabia, in order to serve their large markets. This was possible with
natural products collected from Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the eastern islands,
as well as those gathered at Srivijaya’s entrepôts, such as Bhoga, the capital
city, and Kadaram or Kedah Tua, from neighbouring countries.
Other than natural
products, Srivijaya also exported human resources to China. These include
labourers, household servants, and security guards cum martial arts experts,
commonly referred to by the Chinese as Kunlun nu (Kunlun/Malay slaves). During the Tang Dynasty, numerous Kunluns/Malays from the Malay
Archipelago travelled back and forth to China. Many resided there,
especially in Guangdong. Among them, the martial arts experts and security
guards were a special class of people. Their prowess impressed the Chinese and
became the source of inspirations to amulet makers and, especially, literary
authors of the wuxia (chivalric romance) genre. An interesting example of the
wuxia is the famous story of “The Kunlun Nu” (崑崙奴) by Pei Xing (825-880 C.E.) which
portrays a Malay security guard cum martial arts expert named Mo Le who is
invulnerable, capable of flying, and has other supernatural abilities Xing,
Jue, & Roney, 2013). This literary piece had been a main source for other
artistic pieces, and has been adapted into a movie, “The Promise” (2005), with
Mo Le’s name changed to Kunlun.
Aside from China, the Malays also had strong commercial ties with India. In fact, Malay maritime trade with India goes back even further. As revealed by the recent findings of Universiti Sains Malaysia’s Global Archaeological Research Centre (GARC), it should have started at least approximately 1,900 years ago, especially involving the kingdom of Kedah Tua in the north of the Malay Peninsula. The kingdom was known as Kadaram to ancient Indians, Kalaha to ancient Arabs, and Cheh-Cha to ancient Chinese. Its name was mentioned early in Sanskrit literary works, such as the famous Kathasaritsagara (Ocean of Stories). Later, in the 12th century, it was also recorded by Al-Idirisi, an Arab traveller and geographer, in his book Ar-Rujjar (1154).
At around 535 B.C.E., Kedah Tua,
located at present day Lembah Bujang,
was already a cosmopolitan entrepôt, exporting iron, beads (manik, especially
from Sungai Manik) rattan, resin, areca nuts, sepang wood, elephants, ivory,
and other local products to India and the Middle East, and even Sofala (in
modern-day Mozambique). Strategically located
between India and
China, Kedah Tua
served merchants from both the
East and the West. USM’s findings at the Sungai Batu archaeological site in
Lembah Bujang from 2009 confirm vibrant iron smelting and other metallurgical
activities as well as maritime trading activities in the vicinity back to four
centuries B.C.E. (Lee, 2016).
Sungai Batu
is, so far, the oldest civilisation site in Southeast Asia.
As explained by the GARC Director, Professor Dato’ Dr. Mokhtar
Saidin, various other ancient relics have been discovered in Lembah
Bujang by using the
Optically Stimulated Luminescence
(OSL) technique. This includes
those representing maritime activities, including administrative blocks,
warehouses, jetties and sunken ships or barges, and even religious/ritual
structures (Lee, 2016). Generally, the ancient ships or barges measure about 40
to 50 feet in length. It is believed that these are relics of some of the
vessels used to transport commodities in the maritime trade with India, the
Middle Eastern states, and China (Middleton, 2015).
Apparently, the kingdom
was populated by both locals as well as foreigners who arrived during different
periods from India and the Middle East. In the seventh century, the kingdom was
subjugated by Srivijaya. However, maritime trade went on uninterrupted for
centuries. Kedah Tua benefitted not only from the normal maritime activities,
but also from the trans-peninsular routeway developed along the Muda and Patani
rivers. This enhanced the India-China trade.
In 1025 C.E., Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Dynasty from Tamil Nadu,
India, launched naval raids on the ports of Srivijaya. The aggressive king and
his forces managed to occupy Kedah Tua for some time. This weakened the Malay
kingdom and finally led to the decline of its maritime trading activities. The
main motive for the Chola king to attack Kedah and other Srivijaya ports was to
forcefully gain control of their bubbling commercial activities.
Malay maritime trade
was revived much later with the establishment of the Sultanate of Malacca in
the 15th century. Beginning from around 1400 C.E., successive sultans of
Malacca did their best to attract maritime traders from China, India, the
Islamic Caliphates, and Europe to come over to Malacca. From time to time,
entrepôt infrastructure and management were upgraded and maritime policies and
laws were enhanced. Steps were taken to protect Malaccan waters from pirates
and piracy. Diplomatic relations were strategically established with
significant countries, such as
China, Japan, India, Turkey, and
the Islamic Caliphate states. Thus, Malacca quickly became an international
maritime trading centre and Malay merchants carried their products near and
far. Up to the beginning of the 16th century, maritime trading business at
Malacca’s entrepôt was always bubbling. Quoting Cortesao (1967; as cited in
Elegant, 1999), Elegant says:
Five centuries ago, Malacca hosted
2,000 ships each day… Cargoes of mace (kulit buah pala),
nutmeg (buah pala), cloves (bunga cengkih),
sandalwood (kayu cendana), tea, porcelains and silks passed
through Malacca on their way to Europe. From the islands of the Archipelago to
the south came camphor, birds’ nests, pepper (lada hitam), musk (kesturi), gold
and ivory (gading). And from the West,
mostly carried by traders from South Asia and the Middle East, came cotton,
weapons, incense (setanggi), opium (candu), dyes, silver and medicinal drugs
(Elegant, 1999, p. 45).
The description goes on
to say:
It was a place where
Gujratis, Tamils, and Bengalis from India lived and traded in secure harmony
with Malays, Chinese and Arabs, a city of 100,000 where 84 languages could be
heard in the markets. The Malay sultans who ruled Malacca ensured that the strait
was free of pirates. Goods could be stored safely in hundreds of well-guarded
godowns; the city’s law were administered fairly to both Malaccans and
foreigners (Elegant, 1999, p. 45).
Indeed, that was
Malacca, the Malay maritime powerhouse in the 15th century. As such, it is not
difficult to understand why the contemporary Portuguese chronicler, Tomé Pires,
made it clear to his readers that, “Whoever is lord of Malacca shall have his
hands on the throat of Venice”
(Ludher, 2015). Similarly,
it is not
difficult to understand now why
Afonso de Albuquerque, representing the Portuguese nation, attacked and
conquered Malacca in 1511, resulting in the abrupt decline, or demise, of both
Malay navigation and maritime trade.
Conclusion
The historical cum anthropological discussion above has
clearly shown the sophisticated navigational skills and great achievements of
the Malays in pre-modern times. They had extra-ordinary talent
and skills not only in constructing large ships, but also in travelling across
oceans ahead of most other peoples. The crossing over to Madagascar on
outrigger ships via the perilous Indian Ocean, for example, was indeed a great
feat difficult to surpass.
At the
same time, the
discussion had also
shown the great accomplishment of the Malays in the
past as maritime traders. They were
great maritime traders
not only around
their home waters, but also in faraway places, including
China, India, Arabia, and even Madagascar. It is also amazing to discover that
their navigational and trading activities did not only bring about monetary
gains, but has also had anthropological, social, and cultural impacts on the places
and peoples they interacted with. In fact, they had managed to change the
demographic scenario of the world, with people of Malay stock now occupying
approximately 60 per cent of the circumference of the earth. All of this was
achieved without force or violence.
It is unfortunate that
the marvellous Malay achievement as navigators and maritime traders are not
much discussed or made known to the current generation of Malays. Even more
unfortunate is the fact that the exceptional knowledge and skills both in
navigation and maritime trade are now lost. It is imperative that immediate and
strategic steps be taken collectively by Malay communities across the Malay
world to recover or revive them.
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