BOOK: J.INNES MILLER - "THE SPICE TRADE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 29 B.C TO A.D. 641" (1969)

J. Innes Miller's The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire 29 B.C. to A.D. 641 [Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1969] is the classic source for this.

His central thesis is in Chapter 8: "The Cinnamon Route".

Miller argues:

1. There was a direct sea route between Southeast Asia and East Africa in antiquity.

Roman and Greek authorities like Herodotus said cinnamon and cassia were harvested in Africa, yet botanically those species were then found only in Southeast Asia. Miller explains this contradiction by a trade route extending directly by sea between Southeast Asia and the East African coast over which Malayo-Polynesians were bringing cinnamon of South Chinese origin as early as the late second millennium B.C.

2. The carriers were Southeast Asian seafarers — what he calls Malayo-Polynesians, which includes Malay-Indonesian peoples.

He points to:

• Cultural links between Indonesia and East Africa — e.g., the Malagasy language is related to Malay, and both people use double outrigger canoes.
• Navigational capability: the use of monsoons began far earlier than previously thought, allowing traders to bring their spices westward, perhaps as early as the 2nd millennium BC.
• The market of Rhapta in Azania (East African coast) formed an important link in the trade route between what is now modern Indonesia and consumers in the Mediterranean region

He also discusses linguistic evidence in the region, for example, that in the Malay language the name Keling is still an ancient synonym for emigrants from the Coromandel Coast, showing his attention to Malay-Indian Ocean terminology.

3. Impact and criticism:

Miller's work was described as an "unprecedented" synthesis of ancient materials on the subject.

The Cinnamon Route thesis was embraced by Lionel Casson, Ancient Trade and Society (1984) and others, and was refuted by Manfred G. Raschke, "New Studies in Roman Commerce with the "East"—which is the standard scholarly debate you will see cited today.

So when scholars cite Miller for "Southeast Asian seafarer which includes Malay" in Roman times, they are referring to his argument that Malay-Indonesian sailors were already sailing the western Indian Ocean to East Africa centuries before Europeans, bringing cinnamon and other Southeast Asian spices that then entered the Roman market via Red Sea ports.

They were not only skilled navigators but also played a crucial role in the ancient spice trade. Their expertise in sailing and understanding of monsoon winds allowed them to traverse vast distances across the Indian Ocean, connecting Southeast Asia with East Africa and beyond.

These sailors utilised advanced maritime technology, such as double outrigger canoes, which provided stability and speed on the open waters. Their cultural exchanges with various regions enriched both their own traditions and those of the places they visited, leading to a vibrant tapestry of shared knowledge and practices.

The legacy of the Malay sailors is evident in the linguistic connections found in the languages of the regions they influenced, as well as in the culinary traditions that still celebrate the spices they traded. Their contributions to the spice trade not only shaped the economies of their time but also laid the groundwork for future maritime exploration and trade networks that would follow in the centuries to come.

In essence, the Malay sailors were pioneers of the seas, whose journeys helped to weave a complex web of trade and cultural exchange that would have lasting impacts on the world.

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

30 September 2026: 11:35 p.m