NOTA ALAM MELAYU : THE MALAYS & CIVILISATION

Compiled by : Hj. Zulheimy bin Maamor

1. Malay was first used in the first Millenia as Old Malay, a part of Austronesian Language family (Malayo-Polynesian). The term "Austronesian" was introduced by Wilhelm Schmidt in 1906. 
2. The Malays are made up of a huge racial group basically based in Sundaland (Benua Sunda), normally referred to as Malay Archipelago or Southeast Asia (Oppenheimer, 1998 : Santos, 2005). 
3. The Malays speak various dialects belonging to the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) family of language. 
4. Britannica Encyclopedia defines the Malay or Orang Melayu, any member of an ethnic group of the Malay Peninsula and portions of adjacent islands of Southeast Asia, including the east coast of Sumatera, the coast of Borneo, and smaller islands that lie between these areas.
5. The earliest record in the origin of the Malay is found in a Ptolemy's map as early as the 1st Century AD which also name is as the Golden Chersonese also known as Maleu-Kolon (Gerini, 1909). 
6. Another record from the Chinese such as Dan Ming, mentioned about the Malay. The world Malay was pronounced in accordance  to the Chinese accent such as Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, and Oo-lai-yu. 
7. The Tang Dynasty Chinese were, in general , familiar with the Malay language and referred to it as Kunlun-yu. 
8. The famous story of "The Kunlun-Nu" by Pei Xing (825-880 CE)  which potrays a Malay security guard cum martial arts expert named Mo Le who is invulnerable, capable of flying and has other supernatural abilities. (Xing, Jue & Roney, 2013). This literaty piece had been a main source for other artistic pieces, and has been adopted into a movie "The Promise" (2005) with Mo Le's name change to Kunlun. 
9. The term "Mo-lo-yu" was mentioned by Yijing (I-Tsing or I-Ching) a Tang Dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk who visited Southeast Asia in 688-695 AD. The Kingdom was located at a distance of 15 days sailing from Bogha (Palembang), the capital of Sribhoga (Srivijaya).  
10. During the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) and Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the world "Ma-la-yu:  was mentioned often in the Chinese historical texts.  
11. The term "Malayur" was inscribed in the south wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tamil Naidu, India. It described the Kingdom in Malay Peninsula that fell to the King Rajendra Chola I in the 11th century. 
12. A transcription from the Prasasti Padang Roco dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana mentioned the term "Bhumi Malayu" which is associated with Dharmasraya Kingdom.  
13. Malayapura was inscrited in the Amoghapasa Inscription dated 1347 CE, used by Aditywarman to refer to Dharmasraya. 
14. The oldest form of Malay is decended from the Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by the earliest Austronesian settlers in Southeast Asia.
15. Ancient Malay or ProtoMalay is the language believed to have existed in prehistoric times. Malay proto is one of the aboriginal trives in Malaysia such as Jakun and Temuan.
16. Proto-Malay: translated to Melayu Asli, refers to Austronesian speakers who moved to mainland Asia to the Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago betweem 2500 to 1500 BC.
17. Deutro Malay is the modern Malay today. They set up the early Malay Kingdom.
18. Among the Malay characters were dated from the 16th century onward, such as the one compiled by Tom Pires when Malacca was conquered by the Portuguese. Followed by another Portuguese named Duarte Barbossa in 1518  and a Spaniard Emanuel Godhino de Eredia observed the Malay in Malacca and claimed majority of them were cheerful, roguish and wanton. 
19. The earliest civilization of the Malay Nation can be traced at Sungai Batu, Kedah aged 788 B.C. It is found in the western part of the ancient port and 4 of the discovery are over the age of 500 BC (Arkeologi Sg Batu, 2014).
20. This is followed by the other Malay Kingdom such as Champa, Chih Tu, Funan, Sri Dharmaraja, Langkasuka, Tambralinga, Gangga Negara, Bruas, the old Kedah, the Old Brunei Kingdom, Kutai Kingdom, Pasai, Old Kelantan Kingdom etc... (Hussin 2011). Srivijaya was the first Malay Empire founded in the Malay Archipelago. 
21. Robert Blust (1986) briefed “Malay is one of the races in the family of a very broad ethnic group known as the Malayo-Polynesian or Austronesian. Among the tribes in this family are Malay, Javanese, Bugis, Sundanese, Maori, Hawaii, Fiji and so on.
22. The word Malayo-Polynesian was originally coined in 1841 by Franz Bopp as the name for the Austronesian language family. 
23. Alfred Russel Wallace in the “The Malay Archipelago” (1863) mentioned “the Malay Archipelago as the whole Southeast Asia that forms a triangle, starting from Nicobar Island in the East Sea to the Solomon Islands in the South East, and Luzon in the North to Rotti near the Island of Timor in the South.”
24. Mpu Prapanca a Javanese poet from the Royal Majapahit, in his “Desawarnama” in 1365 has listed some areas identified as the land of the Malays such as Jambi, Palembang, Jakarta, Kampar, Rokan, Pane, Kampe, Aru, Mandaileng, Tumiang,Lamuri, Barus in Sumatra and Langkasuka, Kedah, Kelantan and Pahang in Malay Peninsula (Malkiel-Jirmounsky, 1939).
25. The terms ”sons of the soil  ” could be traced from The Malay Classical texts such as “Malay Annals ” (Sejarah Melayu), ‘Undang-Undang Melaka “ (1470-1750), “Hikayat Merpati Mas dan Merpati Perak “ (1883) and “Adat Raja Melayu “ 1779, MSS 1817.
26. Expedition Pamalayu > the expedition where the Singgahsari Empire wanted to expand and subdue the Power of the Srivijaya Empire. This prove that the name Malay and the Malay Civilization had been around a long time.
27. Datuk Dr. Wan Hashim Wan Teh , Malaysian archeologist that published the latest theory about the origins of the Malay said that the Malay were in the country since 74,000 B.C. rejected the earlier theories that the Malay came from Yunnan and Taiwan.
28. Martin Richards, archeogenetics Professor from Leeds University reported an evidence in the study of DNA that rejected the theory of Malay came from Yunnan and Taiwan. 
29. The Yunnan theory, Mekong river migration (published in 1889) – The theory of Proto-Malays originating from Yunnan is supported by R.H Geldern, J.H.C Kern, J.R Foster, J.R Logen, Slamet Muljana and Asmah Haji Omar. Other evidence that supports this theory include: stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools, the similarity of Malay customs and Assam customs. R.H.Geldern and his team who mentioned that Proto-Malays migrated from the Mekong River to Malay Peninsula (Van Nguyen et al.2000)
30. The Taiwan theory (published in 1997) – The migration of a group of people from Southern China occurred 6,000 years ago, some moved to Taiwan (today's Taiwanese aborigines are their descendants), then to the Philippines and later to Borneo (roughly 4,500 years ago) (today's Dayak and other groups). These ancient people also split with some heading to Sulawesi and others progressing into Java, and Sumatra, all of which now speak languages that belong to the Austronesian Language family. The final migration was to the Malay Peninsula roughly 3,000 years ago. A sub-group from Borneo moved to Champa in modern-day Central and South Vietnam roughly 4,500 years ago. There are also traces of the Dong Son and Hoabinhian migration from Vietnam and Cambodia. All these groups share DNA and linguistic origins traceable to the island that is today Taiwan, and the ancestors of these ancient people are traceable to southern China.
31. The fact that Malay Ancestors were the first people who founded the political formation or actual government in Nusantara in general and in Malaysia in specific, could be verified by the 3^rd century B.C. Indian Primeval texts Ramayana and Vayu Purana which had chronicled an entity called “Malayadvipa “ in Nusantara.
32. Stephen Oppenheimer ( 2004) said that the Malays were originally from Southeast Asia. During the Ice Age, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, Borneo, Philippines were mutually joined to one another before sinking due to the end of the ice age. The result of the great flood the Malay were scattered all over the place as far as Hawaii.
33. A study of the origin of the Malays show Malay Kelantan are the most likely the original Malay settled in the Peninsula over 60,000 years ago. The study involved 10 sub-ethnic Malays in Peninsula Malaysia such the Javanese in Johor and Selangor, the Acheh in Perak, the Minang in Negeri Sembilan, the Banjar in Selangor and Johor, the Bugis in Selangor and Johor, the Rawa in Perak, the Malay Champa in Perak, Kedah and Kelantan, the Pattani in Kelantan, the Kelantan Malay and the Langkawi Malay. This study is the first in the world to identify the basic genetic of the origin of the Malays. 
34. In Madagascar, the Malays became the ancestors of the Malagasy people, with their well-known Merina-Kingdom. 

THE MALAY KINGDOM

1. The oldest Chinese accounts that described the Malay Kingdom was Fukantulu and Shenli as recorded during Han Dynasty in the 2nd Century BC. 
2. The Ancient Kedah existed long before the establishment of the Malacca Sultanate. It stretched from Takuapa, Thailand to Kuala Selinsing in Perak,Malaysia. 
3. The oldest Indian accounts about Malay Kingdom probably from Kalki Purana that mentioned about Malai Land or Mountainous Land but most researchers believe it was actually about Maldives. 
4. An earliest record of the Malay name is about a Malay Kingdom that existed since the 4th century AD in the North Sumatra, known as Moloyu. 
5. Marco Polo's account mentioned a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula as Malauir. 
6. Srivijaya was the first Malay Empire founded in the Malay Archipelago (Yaapar, 2014)
7. Among the earliest Malay Sultanate that existed on the Peninsula is the Sultanate of Kedah. 

ANCIENT KEDAH

1. Ancient Kedah existed long before the establishment of the Malacca Sultanate in the 13th century. 
2. Tamil literature Sillapadikaram and Pattinapalai are the first type of Indian written records concerning the Ancient Kedah. 
3. Sillapadikaram one of the Tamil epics has been dated around 2nd to 3rd century AD, during the Sanggam age. It is stated that Malay Archipelago has already established trading network with the Southern India. 
4. Pattinapalai has been dated around 190-200 AD, it is stated that goods from Kazhagam are being traded in Puhar or in Kaveripattinam. The term Kazhagam refers to Ancient Kedah (Nilakanta Sastri 1975). 
5. Parunkhatai another Tamil epics dated in 10th century AD had mentioned Ancient Kedah as Kataraththu Irumpu denotes "irons came from Kataram"  which refers to Ancient Kedah (Zuliskandar et al 2017). 
6. Kedah Tua name was mentioned early in Sanskrit literary works such as the famous Kathasaritsagara (Ocean of Stories). The record was compiled by Brahman Somadeva around the year 1070 AD. Ancient Kedah was mentioned several times using the name Kataha Dvipa (Wheatley 1961). 
7. A Sanskrit drama in 8th century AD, the Kaudimahotsava also mentiones Ancient Kedah using the term Katahanagara. It is stated that Ancient Kedah is a famous city-port and has been continuosly visited by Indian Traders. 
8. The Malays also had strong commercial ties with India. Through the recent findings by Universiti Sains Malaysia's Global Archaeological Research Centre (GARC), it should has started at least approximately 1,900 years ago, involving the Kingdom of Kedah Tua which was known as Kadaram to ancient Indians, Kalaha to ancient Arabs and Cheh-Cha to ancient Chinese. 
9. The Malays also had strong commercial ties with India. Through the recent findings by Universiti Sains Malaysia's Global Archaeological Research Centre (GARC), it should has started at least approximately 1,900 years ago, involving the Kingdom of Kedah Tua which was known as Kadaram to ancient Indians, Kalaha to ancient Arabs and Cheh-Cha to ancient Chinese.
10. Written records from Chinese sources > one records regarding Ancient Kedah came from the travel Journal  made by I Ching who has travelled from China to India and back, and had also stayed in Srivijaya for a while during the 7th century AD. In 671 AD I Ching stops in Chieh-cha (Ancient Kedah) before continuing journey to Nalanda in India. On his way back from Nalanda in 685 AD he again stopped in Kedah and reported that Kedah was then a vassal of Srivijaya together with Malayu (Jambi). 
11. Another important Chinese record in 638 AD stated that Chieh-cha (Ancient Kedah) has sent their diplomatic mission to the Chinese court (Manguin 2022). This Chieh-cha is the same as the Chieh-cha that I Ching visited during his time in this region, and the Chinese classified the polity as a guo (state) (Wheatley 1961; Zuliskandar & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi 2012: 100).
12. From the Arab-Persian records, Ancient Kedah was known as Kalah or Kalah-bar. Abu Dulaf Misa'r stated that Kalah was a large Kingdom surrounded by walls, flower gardens, water resources facilities market and houses with a large population (Braddell 1950). 
13. Other Arabic record such as the Akhbar as-Sin wa'l-Hind has also stated that al-Zabaj or the Srivijaya has dominated the polity of Kalah-bar (Zuliskandar & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi 2008). 
14. Ancient Kedah was also recorded by Al-Idrisi, an Arab traveller and geographer in his book Ar-Rujjar (1154 AD). 
15. The Buddhagupta Inscription of Bujang Valley, one of the oldest inscriptions of the Southeast Asia, marked the period of the existence of Ancient Kedah as an early polity. 

MALAY CIVILISATION, NAVIGATION AND MARITIME TRADE

1. Historian indicates that in the 1st century C.E, vast fleets of Malay outrigger ship went back and forth to Aden in the Middle East,and some Malays even settled there. (Shaffer, 1996 pp. 16). 
2. The Indian literature in B.C.E to praise the Malay sailors as the speedy sailor. 
3. The name "Kunlun" has been noted down in Nanchouiwuchih by Wan Zhen , a well-known Chinese historian of the 3rd century. The Malays were highlighted for their navigational skills and trading abilities. They were great ship builders, sailors and traders. They built and sailed large vessels known as "Kunlun-po" (Malay ship), measuring 200 ft long , 20 ft high above water, with 4 sails, cargos of 900 tons, and 600-700 people (Wang, 1968).
4. According to Lynda N. Shaffer (1996, p. 12) by at least the 3rd century B.C.E, the Chinese had witnessed Malay sailors and traders approaching their shores in a huge ocean-going vessels (Kunlun-po, colandiophonta) from the so-called Kunlun Islands in the southern seas. 
5. The Malay sailors were highly skilled navigators, sailing over the oceans for thousand of miles without a compass or a written chart. They navigated by the winds and the stars, by the shape and colour of the clouds, by the colour of the water, and by swell and wave patterns on the ocean’s surface. They could locate an island when they were still like 30 miles from its shores by analysing the behavior of various birds, the animal and the plant life in the water, and the patterns of swell and waves. (Shaffer, 1996 pp. 11-12, Taylor, 1976) 
6. According to historian, the Kunlun were great ship builders, sailors and traders. They built and sailed large vessels known as "Kunlun-po" (Malay ship) measuring 200 feet long, 20 ft high above water with 4 sails, cargos of 900 tons and 600-700 people. (Wang, 1968). 
7. The Malays were among the first people to be involved in giant-size shipbuilding, advanced navigation and long distance maritime trafe. 
8. By 3rd century B.C.E the Chinese had taken notice of the Malay sailors approaching their shores from the Kunlun Islands. (Taylor, 1976). 
9. Malay sailors were also the first to use the balance-lug sail for their Jongs and ghalis (galleys). 
10. Third century C.E Chinese descriptions of the foreign vessels indicate that they were of type of called Jong by the Malays,  a local term later adopted by European languages as Junk. (Manguin, 1980 / Shaffer, 1996). 
11. The Chinese also knew these islanders (the Malays) as builders and crew of ocean-going vessels engaged in long-distance overseas trade. The Chinese, in fact, appear to have learnt much from these sailors. The Malays independently invented a sail, made from woven mats reinforced with bamboo at least several hundred years BCE and by the time of Han Dynasty (206 BCE to 221 BC) the Chinese were using  such sails. (Shaffer, 1996 PP 11-12, Johnstone, 1980).
12. The Southeast Asian sailors have been important actors in world history. Long before the Portuguese arrived in Asian's waters, sailors from East Africa to East Asia has already been drawn to Southeast Asian Ports. (M.E. Shaffe, 1996)
13. The Malays independently invented a sail, made from woven mats reinforced with bamboo, at least several hundred years B.C.E., and by the time of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E. to 221 B.C.) the Chinese were using such sails (Shaffer, 1996, pp. 11-12).
14. Researchers believed it has been quite long as Spice Route already exist 5000 years ago and camphor (kapur barus) from Nusantara being used in mummification at least since 3000 years ago. 
15. According to the Portuguese chronicler, Tom Pires, in his Suma Oriental of 1515, in Canton, the vessel of Malacca were usually asked to anchor far from the harbour, because of their big size could be dangerous to Chinese ships which were mostly smaller. In fact, Malacca's ghalis  and jongs were also bigger compared to the Portuguese galleon. 
16. According to Dato' Goh Hin San, Yi-Jing, the Buddhist Monk who spend quite sometime in Kedah wrote that iron was part of trade item in Kedah Port, or Chieh-Cha, as what was the Chinese called, where they do not have the syllable 'Ke' and 'dah'. 
17. Iron from Kedah was recorded in Indian Poem 2nd century AD and in Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin official log as one of export commodity. 
18. USM's finding at the Sungai Batu Archaelogical Sites in Bujang Valley, Kedah from 2009 confirm vibrant iron smelting and other mettalurgical activities as well as Maritime trading activities in the vicinity back to 4th century B.C.E. 
19. Prof Mokhtar Saidin said that in recent study of Roman road construction, some of the iron that used for the reinforcement came from Kedah. 
20. The Malay Maritime trade was revived much later with the establishment of the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century. Malacca became an International  Maritime Trading Centre. For centuries, Malacca hosted 2,000 ships each day. Tom Pires made it clear to his readers that, "Whoever is lord of Malacca shall have his hands on the throat of Venice" (Ludher, 2015). 
21. 3rd or 4th century AD, Chih Tu Kingdom sent "Long-nao xiang"  which is a very quality camphor (Kapur Barus) sent to China Emperor Court. Chih Tuh located at Malay Peninsula. 
22. 5th and 6th century AD, Chinese traders mentioned P'o-lu perfume of Lang-ya-hsiu (Langkasuka). While in 7th century, camphor was found during Arab invasion in Ctesophon (Middle East) as told by Ibn al-Attir.
23. I-Tsing mentioned about P'olu-shih (Camphor perfume), camphor is one of precious item exported by Srivijaya Kingdom. 
24. In 9th century AD, the book "Ajai'ib al-Hind" mentioned a place named Fansur. Fansur is a port that camphor come from as mentioned in a book named "Akhbar al-Sind wal Hind" (851 AD).
25. In discussing Chinese Maritime Commerce and shipping during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE to 221 BC), Hill (2004) for example, points out that > Roman and Arab ships dominated the Egypt to India trade, but most of the trade between India and China was carried by Malay, Indonesian and Indian ships.  

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Updated by Hj. Zulheimy Maamor

Date: 20 Oktober 2023 : 8.47 pm