Posted by : Retnaguru Sandrakasan @ FB Malaysian Heritage and History Club
“And [who] [Rājendra Cola] having dispatched many ships in the midst of the rolling sea and having caught Saṅgrāma-vijayottuṅgavarman, the king of Kaḍarām, along with the rutting elephants of his army, [took] the large heap of treasures, which [that king] had rightfully accumulated; [captured] the [arch called] Vidyādhara-toraṇa at the “war gate” of the extensive city of the enemy; Śri-Vijaya with “Jewel-gate”, adorned with great splendour and the “gate of large jewels”; Paṇṇai, watered by the river; the ancient Malaiyūr [with] a fort situated on a high hill; Māyiruḍiṅgam, surrounded by the deep sea [as] a moat; Ilaṅgāśogam undaunted [in] fierce battles; MāppappāỊam, having abundant [deep] waters as defence; MeviỊmbaṅgam, having fine walls as defence; VaỊaippandūṛu, possessing [both] cultivated land [?] and jungle; Talaittakkolam, praised by great men [versed in] the sciences; Mādamāliṅgam, firm in great and fierce battles; Ilāmurideśam, whose fierce strength was subdued by a vehement [attack]; Māṇakkavāram whose flower-gardens [resembled] the girdle [of the nymph] of the southern region; Kaḍarām, of fierce strength, which was protected by the neighbouring sea.” (R.C. Majumdar 1937: 173-74)
1. Śri-Vijaya: <with “Jewel-gate”, adorned with great splendour and the “gate of large jewels”> Undoubtedly the ancient Satingpra on the east coast of Malay Peninsula, not Palembang on the southern Sumatra as believed by many. Śrivijaya (Shih-li-fo-shih 室利佛逝) was one of the capitals and among the most important commercial city-ports of the empire. This is the same city where I-Tsing, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited in 671 AD for six months to study grammar of the Sanskrit, on his journey to Tāmralipti. Palembang (Pa-lin-föng 巴林馮) on the other hand, is explicitly described in Chao Ju-kua (1225 AD, Hirth and Rockhill: 57-58; Wheatley 1961: 65-66) as one of the dependencies of the empire. So, Palembang certainly was not Śrivijaya city-port.
2. Paṇṇai: <watered by the river>
Phonetically identical to Pane of Nāgarakeṛtāgama, an ancient kingdom (or chiefdom) that generally located at modern Panei on the east coast of Northern Sumatra. In my opinion this city-port is situated near Kota China or the same location with Kampei (Kien-pi 監箆), which was one of the dependencies of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire as recorded in Chao Ju-kua (1225 AD, Hirth and Rockhill: 57-58; Wheatley 1961: 65-66).
3. Malaiyūr: <[with] a fort situated on a high hill>
Many conjecture that the ancient Malaiyūr corresponds with Jambi. However, Jambi was one of the capitals of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi Empire (after 900 AD), but Jambi was then somewhat unfamiliar to the countries of the west. Jambi only become prominent after 1080 AD. The ancient Malaiyūr is unlikely Jambi but a city-port situated on the Riau Islands, just nearby the southern end of Malay Peninsula, which was then an important junction port between Malacca strait and South China sea. It could be the same Malayu city-port visited by I-Tsing in 672 and 686-87 AD. We learn from I-Tsing that it was fifteen days’ journey by sea from Śrivijaya (Satingpra) and by changing the direction (at Malayu) it was fifteen days’ journey by sea to Kedah. So, Malayu was the intermediary between Śrivijaya and Kedah.
4. Māyiruḍiṅgam: <surrounded by the deep sea [as] a moat>
Usually identified with Jih-lo-t'ing 日羅亭, which was one of the dependencies of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire as recorded in Chao Ju-kua (1225 AD, Hirth and Rockhill: 57-58; Wheatley 1961: 65-66). The location of Jih-lo-t'ing should be placed on the east coast of Malay Peninsula, but the exact location is still difficult to identify. T. Suzuki locates it in Jerteh, Terengganu. Jih-lo-t'ing considered as one of the important city-ports of the empire.
5. Ilaṅgāśogam: <undaunted [in] fierce battles>
Phonetically identical to Langkasuka and many identify it with Patani. However, this “Langkasuka” cannot be Patani and in my opinion it was situated between Kedah (Kaḍarām) and Takuapa (Talaittakkolam?) on the west coast of Malay Peninsula, possibly near Kuan Luk Pad @ Khlong Thom. This “Langkasuka” city-port could be connected with Tāmbraliṅga (Mādamāliṅgam) on the east coast through overland route just like Takuapa-Bandon. Whether this “Langkasuka” corresponds with Langkasuka (Ling-ya-ssi-kia 凌牙斯加) of Chao Ju-kua (1225 AD, Hirth and Rockhill: 57-58; Wheatley 1961: 65-66) is unknown. Anyway, Langkasuka was also one of the dependencies of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire. Both Ilaṅgāśogam and Mādamāliṅgam city-ports originally belonged to Old Langkasuka kingdom, before this kingdom was integrated into Chi-tu and Śrīvijaya (successor of Chi-tu) right until 1200 AD. However, in the 14th - 15th centuries, Langkasuka is known to be situated at Patani. So, this Patani’s Langkasuka should be regarded as New Langkasuka.
6. MāppappāỊam: <having abundant [deep] waters as defence>
Should be identified with a city-port of Pahang (P'ong-föng 蓬豊) kingdom, which was one of the dependencies of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire as recorded in Chao Ju-kua (1225 AD, Hirth and Rockhill: 57-58; Wheatley 1961: 65-66).
7. MeviỊmbaṅgam: <having fine walls as defence>
M. Sylvain Levi identifies it with Kāma-laṅkā of Hiuen Tsang @ Karmaraṅga of Kalaśāhvā and Kalaśamukhya and places it on the isthmus of Ligor. In my opinion, it should be identified with Grahi (Kia-lo-hi 加羅希), which was one of the dependencies of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire as recorded in Chao Ju-kua (1225 AD, Hirth and Rockhill: 57-58; Wheatley 1961: 65-66). Grahi should be located to the south of Kra isthmus, around Bandon bay area. Its main city was Chaiya @ Jaiya and the port is situated at Laem Pho. This city-port could be connected with Takuapa (Talaittakkolam?) on the west coast through overland route. If Takuapa is not Talaittakkolam, then the MeviỊmbaṅgam city-port could be Takuapa.
8. VaỊaippandūṛu: <possessing [both] cultivated land [?] and jungle>
Phonetically identical to Panduranga, a city-port of Champa country. However, Chola could not have attacked Champa. In my opinion VaỊaippandūṛu should be identified with either Kelantan (Ki-lan-tan 吉蘭丹) or Fo-lo-an 佛羅安, which both were the dependencies of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire as recorded in Chao Ju-kua (1225 AD, Hirth and Rockhill: 57-58; Wheatley 1961: 65-66). Fo-lo-an 佛羅安 considered as one of the important city-ports of the empire.
9. Talaittakkolam: <praised by great men [versed in] the sciences>
Phonetically identical to Takkola of Milindapaῆha and Takola of Ptolemy that could be either situated at Takuapa or Trang? This city-port more likely situated at Takuapa. Trang was then probably a satellite city-port of Kedah (Kaḍarām).
10. Mādamāliṅgam: <firm in great and fierce battles>
Phonetically identical to Tāmbraliṅga (Tan-ma-ling 単馬令), which was one of the dependencies of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire as recorded in Chao Ju-kua (1225 AD, Hirth and Rockhill: 57-58; Wheatley 1961: 65-66). This city-port undoubtedly situated near modern Nakhon Si Thammarat city. Tāmbraliṅga was made a military/navy centre of empire that primarily functioned to take control of Siamese bay as well as to supervise Angkor dynasty.
11. Ilāmurideśam: <whose fierce strength was subdued by a vehement [attack]>
Phonetically identical to Lāmuri of the Arab geographers and Lambri of Marco Polo. Under the name of Lan-wu-li 藍無里, this country was one of the dependencies of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire as recorded in Chao Ju-kua (1225 AD, Hirth and Rockhill: 57-58; Wheatley 1961: 65-66). This city-port was situated near modern Aceh city.
12. Māṇakkavāram: <whose flower-gardens [resembled] the girdle [of the nymph] of the southern region>
Phonetically identical to Necuveran of Marco Polo. This place could be easily identified with Nicobar Islands.
13. Kaḍarām: <of fierce strength, which was protected by the neighbouring sea>
Undoubtedly the ancient Kuala Muda city of Kedah on the west coast of Malay Peninsula. It was the seat of the great king (Śailendra line of Kaḍarām-Śrīvijaya) of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire, as clearly dictated in the inscriptions of Nāgapaṭṭana. This city-port could be connected with Śrivijaya city-port on the east coast through overland route. Trang and Perlis probably its satellite ports that could also be connected to Śrivijaya city-port. These were the major routes for transporting western goods/commodities purchased from the emporiums on the west coast before shipping to China through Śrivijaya city-port on the east coast. It could be the same city-port visited by I-Tsing in 672 and 686 AD. Kaḍarām city-port was the main point of contact to the west countries and the biggest emporium of Suvarṇadvīpa @ San-fo-qi empire. This city-port was greatly protected by navy.
Notes:
1. According to R.C. Majumdar, the syllable “mā” is equivalent to “mahā” in Sanskrit.
2. Chao Ju-kua enumerates the dependencies of San-fo-qi empire with the last five (5) are Pa-lin-föng (Palembang), Sin-t'o (Sunda), Kien-pi (Kampei), Lan-wu-li (Lamuri), Si-lan (Ceylon, Sri Lanka). So, the remaining ten (10) places should be located in the Malay Peninsula. The first is certainly the most southern, and the last is in the most northern.
(1) P'ong-föng 蓬豊 = Pahang
(2) Tong-ya-nöng 登牙濃 = Terengganu
(3) Ling-ya-ssi-kia 凌牙斯加 = Langkasuka
(4) Ki-lan-tan 吉蘭丹 = Kelantan
(5) Fo-lo-an 佛羅安 = Kuala Berang?
(6) Jih-lo-t'ing 日羅亭 = Jerteh?
(7) Ts'ien-mai 潜邁 = (?)
(
Pa-ťa 抜沓 = Patani
Pa-ťa 抜沓 = Patani(9) Tan-ma-ling 単馬令 = Tāmbraliṅga
(10) Kia-lo-hi 加羅希 = Grahi
(11) Pa-lin-föng 巴林馮 = Palembang
(12) Sin-t'o 新拖 = Sunda
(13) Kien-pi 監箆 = Kampei
(14) Lan-wu-li 藍無里 = Lamuri
(15) Si-lan 細蘭 = Sri Lanka (absorbed probably after 1070)
**end**
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