NOTA ILMU: SEJARAH PEPERANGAN DI ZAMAN RASULULLAH S.A.W DAN KHALIFAH AR-RASYIDIN

Dalam sejarah Islam, siri peperangan bermula selepas peristiwa Hijrah ke Madinah pada tahun 622 M. Peperangan pada zaman Nabi Muhammad SAW dibahagikan kepada dua kategori utama: 

1. Ghazwah (peperangan yang disertai dan dipimpin sendiri oleh Baginda) 
2. Sariyah (ekspedisi tentera yang diutus oleh Baginda di bawah pimpinan para sahabat). 

Kronologi Peperangan Zaman Rasulullah SAW

Berikut adalah siri pertempuran utama yang membentuk landskap awal tamadun Islam:

• Perang Badar (17 Ramadan 2 H / 624 M): Pertempuran besar pertama di mana 313 tentera Islam berjaya menewaskan lebih 1,000 tentera musyrikin Quraisy. Perang ini membuktikan bahawa kekuatan akidah mampu mengatasi kelebihan material. 
• Perang Uhud (3 H / 625 M): 
• Umat Islam mengalami kemunduran taktikal dan kehilangan ramai sahabat (termasuk Saidina Hamzah) akibat sekumpulan tentera pemanah yang ingkar arahan Nabi kerana mengejar harta rampasan perang (ghanimah). 
• Tentera Musyrikin diketuai oleh Abu Sufyan dengan 3000 tentera manakala tentera Islam seramai 1000 orag. 
• Abdullah bin Ubay mengetuai beberapa tentera Islam keluar dari pertempuran dan kembali ke Madinah. 
• Syahidnya Bapa Saudara Nabi Saidina Hamzah bin Abdul Mutalib. 
• Perang Khandaq / Al-Ahzab (5 H / 627 M): 
• 10,000 tentera Yahudi & Musyrikin menyerang penduduk Islam di Madinah. Tentera Islam seramai 3,000 orang bertahan di Madinah. 
• Strategi luar biasa membina parit (cadangan Salman al-Farisi) di sekeliling kota Madinah bagi menyekat pengepungan gabungan (Ahzab) tentera musyrikin dan sekutu Yahudi.
• Perang Mu'tah (8 H / 629 M): 
• Pertempuran sengit pertama menentang empayar besar Byzantine (Rom Timur) di wilayah Jordan ekoran pembunuhan utusan diplomatik Islam, Al-Harith bin Umair al-Azdiy. Beliau dibunuh dengan kejam oleh Syurahbil bin Amru al-Ghassani (Gabenor Rom di Balqa).
• 3,000 Tentera Islam menentang 100,000 hingga 200,000 Tentera Gabungan Rom dan Arab Ghassanid.
• Tiga Panglima Tentera Islam gugur Syahid - Zaid bin Harithah, Ja'afar bin Abi Talib dan Abdullah bin Rawahah. Khalid bin Walid dilantik mengetuai Tentera Islam selepas gugurnya 3 panglima Islam. Beliau digelar "Pedang Allah" oleh Rasulullah s.a.w.
• Pembukaan Kota Mekah (Fathu Makkah - 8 H / 630 M): 
• 10,000 tentera Islam menuju ke Mekah dari Madinah setelah kaum Quraisy melanggar Perjanjian Hudaybiyyah dengan membantu Bani Bakr menyerang dan membunuh suku Bani Khuza'ah. 
• Kemuncak kemenangan tanpa tumpahan darah yang besar, di mana Nabi Muhammad SAW membersihkan Kaabah daripada 360 berhala dan memaafkan penduduk Mekah.  
• Abu Sufyan bin Harb, Hindun bt Utbah dan Ikrimah Bin Abu Jahal memeluk Agama Islam. 
• Perang Hunain & Thaif (8 H / 630 M): 
• 12,000 tentera Islam menentang 20,000 tentera musuh pimpinan Malik bin Auf. 
• Tentera Islam diuji dengan sifat riak. 
• Perang Tabuk (9 H / 630 M): Peperangan terakhir yang disertai oleh Rasulullah SAW. Tentera Islam seramai 30,000 orang mara ke utara untuk menghadapi ancaman Rom, tetapi tentera Rom menarik diri sebelum pertempuran bermula. 

PEPERANGAN DI ZAMAN KHULAFA AR-RASYIDIN

Peperangan di zaman Khulafa Ar-Rasyidin (632–661 M) terbahagi kepada dua fasa utama iaitu futuhat (perluasan kuasa luar) menentang Empayar Rom Byzantine dan Parsi Sasaniah, serta perang saudara domestik (Fitnah Pertama) yang berlaku akibat pergolakan politik dalaman. 

Berikut adalah ringkasan siri peperangan utama mengikut kronologi pemerintahan empat khalifah:

1. Zaman Khalifah Abu Bakar As-Siddiq (632–634 M)

Fokus utama pemerintahan beliau adalah menstabilkan semula Semenanjung Arab selepas kewafatan Nabi Muhammad SAW sebelum memulakan kempen luar. 

• Perang Riddah / Perang Yamamah (632–633 M): 
• Siri kempen ketenteraan untuk memerangi golongan murtad, nabi palsu (seperti Musailamah al-Kazzab), dan kabilah yang enggan membayar zakat. 
• Al-Bara' bin Malik  bertindak berani mati dengan dirinya dicampak melepasi tembok tinggi menggunakan alat loncatan dan berjaya membuka pintu gerbang dari dalam.
• Musailamahal-Kazzab berjaya dibunuh oleh Wahsi bin Harb (orang yang pernah membunuh Saidina Hamzah bin Abdul Mutalib ketika Perang Uhud dan akhirnya memeluk Islam). 
• Gugur Syahid Zayd bin Al-Khattab, saudara kandung Umar Al-Khattab. 
• Usamah bin Zaid mengetuai ekspedisi ke Syria. 
• Permulaan Kempen Iraq & Syam: Menghantar panglima Khalid bin al-Walid untuk membuka wilayah Iraq (sempadan Parsi) dan menggerakkan tentera ke wilayah Syam (sempadan Rom).

2. Zaman Khalifah Umar bin al-Khattab (634–644 M)

Zaman ini merupakan era keemasan ekspansi ketenteraan Islam yang menyaksikan kejatuhan dua empayar besar dunia. 

• 634M - Penaklukan Damsyik  : 
• Membebaskan bumi Syam dari Empayar Rom Byzantine. 
• 20,000 Tentera Islam dibawah Pimpinan Khalid ibn Walid, dibantu oleh Abu Ubaidah bin al-Jarrah, Yazid bin Abi Sufyan dan Syurahbil bin Hasanah. 
• 635M - Penawanan Madain : 
• Ibukota Empayar Parsi Sassanid. 
• Dipimpin oleh Sa'ad bin Abi Waqqas. 
• Empayar Sassanid dibawah Maharaja Yazdegerd III.
• 636M - Perang Yarmuk : 
• Pertempuran hebat menentang Empayar Rom Byzantine yang membuka jalan kepada penguasaan penuh Islam di wilayah Syam dan Baitulmaqdis. 
• 30,000 Tentera Islam dipimpin oleh Khalid ibn Walid. 
• Tentera Rom seramai 240,000 dipimpin oleh Theodore Trithyrius dan Vahan di bawah perintah Maharaja Heraclius. 
• Kejatuhan penguasaan Rom di Syria, Palestin dan Jordan. 
• Penglibatan Kaum Wanita (Sahabiyah) - Hindun binti Utbah. 
• 3 Sahabat yang syahid : Ikrimah bin Abu Jahal, Al-Harith bin Hisham dan Ayyash bin Abi Rabi'ah. 
• 2 anak Khalifah Ar-Rasyidin yang turut menyertai pertempuran sebagai tentera biasa ialah Abdurahman bin Abu Bakar as-Siddiq dan Abdullah bin Umar Al-Khattab. 
• 636M - Perang al-Qadisiyyah : Dipimpin oleh Sa'ad bin Abi Waqqas menentang tentera Parsi di bawah panglima Rustam Farrokhzad. Kemenangan ini meruntuhkan benteng pertahanan utama Parsi. 
• 638M - Penaklukan Baitulmaqdis oleh Tentera Islam dibawah Abu Ubaidah bin al-Jarrah dan Amru bin al-As. 
• 642M - Perang Nihawand : Dikenali sebagai "Fathul Futuh" (Pembukaan daripada Segala Pembukaan) yang menamatkan empayar berpusat Parsi Sasaniah secara mutlak. Tentera Islam dipimpin oleh al-Nu'man bin Muqarrin al-Muzani manakala tentera Parsi dipimpin oleh Mardan Shah. 
• 640-642M - Pembukaan Mesir (640–642 M): Diketuai oleh Amru bin al-Aas dan al-Zubair bin Al-Awwam yang berjaya membebaskan Mesir daripada cengkaman Rom Byzantine. 

3. Zaman Khalifah Uthman bin Affan (644–656 M)

Perluasan kuasa diteruskan ke wilayah yang lebih jauh serta menyaksikan penubuhan angkatan tentera laut Islam yang pertama.

• Perang Dzatus Sawari (655 M): Pertempuran laut pertama yang menyaksikan armada Islam berjaya menewaskan ratusan kapal perang Rom Byzantine di Laut Mediterranean. Pemimpin Angkatan Laut Muslim ialah Abdullah bin Sa'ad bin Abi Sarh. 
• Ekspansi ke Timur & Afrika Utara: Penerusan kempen sehingga ke wilayah Caucasus, Khurasan (Transoxiana), serta perluasan ke Cyprus, Tunisia, dan Libya. 

4. Zaman Khalifah Ali bin Abi Talib (656–661 M)

Fasa ini tidak melibatkan perluasan kuasa luar kerana empayar Islam berhadapan dengan perang saudara (Fitnah Pertama) akibat tuntutan bela atas pembunuhan Khalifah Uthman. 

• Perang Jamal / Perang Unta (656 M): Perang Saudara pertama dalam Sejarah Islam. Pertempuran antara pasukan Khalifah Ali dengan puak yang menuntut keadilan dipimpin oleh Saidatina Aisyah, Talhah bin Ubaidillah , dan al-Zubair bin Awwam. Talhah dan Zubair gugur dalam pertempuran ini. 
• Perang Siffin (657 M): Pertempuran antara tentera Khalifah Ali menentang gabenor Syam, Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan, yang berakhir dengan peristiwa Majlis Tahkim (Arbitrasi).
• Perang Nahrawan (658 M): Tindakan ketenteraan Khalifah Ali bagi menumpaskan golongan Khawarij (puak yang keluar daripada pakatan Ali selepas Tahkim). 

Rujukan : 

1. Wikipedia: Sejarah Islam.
2. FB Reputasi : 27 Peperangan yang diikuti Nabi Muhammad s.a.w.
3. Slideshare: Peperangan yang berlaku ketika zaman Nabi Muhammad.

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

17 Ogos 2026: 5. 55 p.m

MY NOTEBOOK: ARCHAEOLOGY IN MALAYSIA

Archaeology in Malaysia spans over 1.8 millions years of human prehistory,bridging ancient hominid evolutionary markers, Southeast Asia's oldest civilisations and rich maritime trade networks. 

• Alastair Lamb: in 1964, Lamb constructed the evolution of maritime trade on the Malay Peninsula. He categorising the early ports into distinct functional heirarchies. 
• Primary Entreports -Major, large scale international trading hubs such as the Takuapa or Bujang Valleyu. 
• Subsidiary Entreports - secondary hubs such as Kuala Selinsing in Perak, collect hinterland products, including tin ingots and forest goods. 
• Australomelanesoid: indigenous people typical of early Southeast Asia and the Pacific. 
• Avalokitesvara-type statue: was found in Bidor, Perak in 1936. Studies have found that this statue dates back to the Gupta period in India, which existed in the 5th-6th century AD. This proves the existence of the Malay Gangga Negaa Kingdom.  
• Azie Shipwreck: discovered at Tanjung Tuan, Port Dickson in 1989. The underwater archaeological investigation was carried out by the Department of Museums and Antiquities (JMA). 
• Buddhagupta Inscription: stone inscription, a 5th century CE Buddhist stone inscription found in the Province Wellesley, Penang, Malaysia in 1834 by Capt. James Low of the East India Company. It is today kept in Indian Museum in Kolkata, India. 
• Bidong Boat: found by fisherman approximately 2 nautical miles from Pulau Bidong, Terengganu in 2012. 
• Bot Jenderam: and ancient wooden boat with its paddles/rowers in a tin mine at Kampung Jenderam Hilir, Selangor in 1940, exposed one of the Peninsular Malaysia's most critical open archaeological sites. Later excavations in 1977 confirmed it as a multi-component settlement dating from the late Neolithic era (c.2000 BC) up to the Melaka Sultanate. 
• Bujang Valley Archaeological Museum: 
• home to Southeast Asia's oldest recorded man-made structures.Excavation at Sungai Batu Archaeological Site have revealed a thriving 2,000 year old multicultural port complete with 12 jetties and major iron-smelting factories. 
• 1938-39: excavation work in Bujang Valley by Dr. H.G. Quaritch Wales and his wife Dorothy, discovered 30 temples of worship.
• Bukit Bunuh: Lenggong Valley - records the earliest hominid presence thus far known in Southeast Asia at 1.83 million years ago with the discovery of some of the oldest hand axes in the world. 
• Bukit Chora : In Yan,Kedah > ongoing archaeological excavations in April 21 and May 21, 2024 led by USM have unveiled the largest, best-preserved Buddhist temple structure in the region. Dating back 1,200 years to the 7th or 8th century CE, this site predates iconic regional landmarks like Ankor Wat and Borodudur. 
• Bukit Melaka (St.Paul Hill): discovery of the Bastion Hendrica Louisa alignment in June 2025 provides critical physical evidence of the original Kota Melayu Melaka (Melaka Fort). 
• Bukit Tengkorak: discovery of several skulls at Bukit Tengkorak in Semporna, Sabah in 1994, identified as the largest pottery-making site in Southeast Asia during the Neolithic Age around 3,000 years ago. 
• Deutro Malay: an Iron Age and Bronze Age people who migrated into the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago around 300 BCE.They are the direct ancestors of today's modern ethnic Malays. 
• Dinosaur:
• 2014 : Spinosaurus dinosaur fossil found in Tasik Bera, Pahang. The first dinosaur fossil found in Malaysia.
• fossils of Ornithischians type dinosaurs were also found in Pahang.
• November 2014 - discovery of Iguanodontian (sub-group of Ornithopoda), Theropod and Sauropod fossils in Gunung Gagau, Hulu Terengganu.
• 2020: Researchers from Universiti Malaysia Kelantan found 7-10 footprints in Quartz Sandstone at Bukit Panau, Tanah Merah, Kelantan. Believed to be from a Sauropod species and a Compsognathus species. Another discovery in 2020 is the discovery of Stegodon fossils, a species of Ancient Elephant found in Gopeng, Perak. 
• Dong Son Drum  :   
• 1905 - the first gragment Dong Son Drums discovered at Kampung Bukit Kuda, Klang, Selangor. 
• in 1926, William Linehan an Irish historian discovered a Dong Son Bronze war Drum along the Sungai Tembeling in Pahang. It is recognised as the earliest bronze drum discovery in Malaysia. 
• 1964 - prehistoric Dong Son Bronze drum accidentally discovered at the Kampung Batu Buruk, Kuala Terengganu by Public Works Department (JKR) bulldozer during road construction. The  same year, 2 drums were discovered in Kampung Sungai Lang, Kuala Langat, Banting, Selangor .
• 1995: discovery of Timbang Dayang Bronze Drum at Bukit Timbang Dayang Burial site, Bangi Island in Kudah Sabah. The first and only Dong Son era bronze drum found in Sabah, and the 3rd ever on Borneo Island. 
• 11 May 1996 - A bronze drum was found in Jertih, Terengganu by villagers in a Sungai Mati cemetery about 2 km from Jertih Town. The same year in 1996, the Bronze Drum was found on the banks of the Sedu River, Kuala Langar, Selangor by brick-making workers.
• Gua Badak: Lenggong Valley - in 1924, I.H.N Evans reported the discovery of ancient paintings in Gua Badak, Lenggong, Perak.It was lost due to quarrying activities before being rediscovered in 1992.
• Gua Bewah: Tasik Kenyir, Terengganu - In 2009: An ancient human skeleton was found in Gua Bewah, Tasik Kenyir in Terengganu, believed to be 16,000 years old, older than Perak Man.
• Gua Cawan: 2018: A group of researchers from UKM and the National Heritage Department discovered a prehistoric human skeleton believed to be a teenage girl aged between 6,000 and 8,000 years old at Gua Cawan in the Nenggiri Valley, Hulu Kelantan.
• Gua Cha: highly significant Hoabinhian and Neolithic archaeological site located on the west bank of the Nenggiri River in Gua Musang, Kelantan. In 1954, excavation by G.de G. Sieveking, uncovered key human burials and thousands of pottery fragments proving an occupational overlap between the Hoabinhian and Neolithic periods. 
• Gua Gunung Runtuh: Lenggong Valley, the home of 11,000 year-old Perak Man. In 1991 his skeletal remains, in a foetal position were unearthed from an elaborate burial site in the cave.
• Gua Harimau: Lenggong Valley - 11 skeletons, pots and bronze tools were found in the cave in 1980's and 90's, proof of the existence of an early Bronze Age in Malaysia. 
• Gua Kajang: Lenggong Valley - the first cave to be excavated by I.H.N Evans in 1917. It revealed urn fragments, stone tools, food deposits and human bones, all evidence of human life 11,000 to 5,000 years ago.
• Gua Kecil:Located at Raub, Pahang - in 1964, Frederick L.Dunn published his landmark findings on Gua Kecil at Raub , Pahang. His excavations revealed a highly significant multi-stage prehistoric occupational sequence spanning the Hoabinhian and Neolithic eras. Reseachers discovered animal bone remain, edible molluscs, resin (damar) and ancient plant food remains.
• Gua Kain Hitam: located at Niah National Park, Sarawak - In 2007: USM researchers discovered 8 prehistoric human skeletons in Lobang Kain Hitam Cave, Sarawak believed to be 2,000 years old (Associate Professor Stephen Chia).
• Gua Madai, Kunak, Sabah: 
• in 1968, pioneering archaeologist Barbara Harrison do-led a monumental reconnaissance in Madai Cave at Kunak, Sabah, uncovering ancient stone tools, distinct earthenware and old burial grounds. This discovery proved human occupation dating back over 10,000 years, establishing the region as a major neolithic and Metal Age cultural crossroad in eastern Sabah. 
• 1979-1980: Excavations at Madai Cave, Kunak, Sabah were carried out by Peter Bellwood, discovering ancient tools, food remains and old burial grounds.
• Gua Ngaum: Lenggong Valley - containing food deposits, stone tools and broken earthernware of early dwellers. It could have been in use 7,000 to 6,000 years ago. 
• Gua Sagu: located at Sungai Lembing in Pahang, archaeological excavations led by Prof. Dato' Dr. Zuraina Majid, revealed important evidence of prehistoric human settlement from the late Pleistocene to Holocene periods. 
• Gua Teluk Kelawar: Lenggong Valley - this cave was used 11,000 to 6,000 years ago from the discovery of stone tools, food deposits (such as river snails, Brotia Costula and Brotia Spinosa) and animal bones. Human remains and burial sites dating 8,000 years indicated that the Paleolithic age in Malaysia in the region continued until the early Holocene era before the Neolithic arriva. The Perak Woman skeleton was found in this cave in 2004.  
• Guar Kepah: Historically famous as the very first archaeological site ever excavated in Peninsular Malaysia, initially dug up by British archaelogists starting in 1863. 
• George Windsor Earl : In 1850, he conducted the very first archaeological excavation at Guar Kepah, Seberang Perai, Pulau Pinang in 1850. He discovered 3 Neolithic shell middens and unburied 27 ancient human skeletons.
• Between 1851 and 1934, British researches excavated 41 other skeletons from the exact shell mounds. 
• Between 1934-1936: excavations led by Pieter Vincent van Stein Callenfels, uncovered the nomadic Semang tribe, these discoveries evidenced a 5,000 to 6,000 year old settled marine community. 
• Hoabinhian: a major prehistoric Mesolithic stone-tool industry and hunter-gatherer culture that thrived across Mainland Southeast Asia from approximaely 30,000 to 3,000 BCE. 
• Homo Erectus: believed to have migrated across the land bridges from Southeast Asia as far as Java 1.8 million years ago.
• Homo Sapiens : Scientific name of the sole surviving species of the genus homo, to which all living modern humans belong. Emerging roughly 300,000 years ago in Africa, Homo sapiens are distinguished by unique anatomical features, complex languages, symbolic thinking and an unprecedented capacity to alter their enviroment. 
• Jenderam Hilir: located at Sungai Langat, Dengkil, Selangor - the 1977 discovery confirmed it as one of the oldest open-air-Neolithic Settlements in Peninsular Malaysia. The 4,500 year old artefacts included pottery sherds, stone adzes and a wooden boat plank. 
• Kampung Bekuku, Ulu Tomani, Tenom, Sabah: the Lumuyu Petroglyph, Malaysia's largest ancient rock carving, the 1,000 years old sandstone boulder features human faces and footprints, was gazetted as a Sabah State Heritage site in 1999. 
• Kampung Bukit Kuda, Kelang, Selangor: a Bronze drum was found in 1944 during construction work during the Japanese period (Leong Sau Heng, 1988). 
• Kampung Sungai Lang, Banting, Selangor: the ancient boat remnants and accompanying artifacts were discovered and excavated in 1964 by the Department of Museums and Antiquities in collaboration with the University of Malaya. Estimated by radiocarbon dating to span from 580 BC to AD 190. The Dong Son bronze drums discovered buried with the boat. 
• Kota Gelanggi : also known as Klang Kio or Ganggayu, a legendary ancient lost city mentioned in the Sulalatus Salatin (Malay Annals). In 2005, independent researchers, Raimy Che Ross reported discovering the potential site of this ancient black stone fortress hidden within the dense forest reserves of Ulu Tiram, Johor. 
• Kota Tampan: Grik, Lenggong Valley, Perak:
• In 1938, Archaeologist H.D.Collings conducted the first excavation at the Kota Tampan Paleolithic site. He discovered ancient Palaeolithic stone tools. 
• In 1958 - British archaeologist, Ann Sieveking published her seminal report, "The Palaeolithic Industry of Kota Tampan, Perak, Malaya" analysing her 1954 excavation at the site. Her work documented 234 stone tools and established a relative Middle Pleitocene date for the site based on geological stratigraphy. 
• Excavation in 1987 led by Malaysian archaeologist, Prof. Siti Zuraina Abdul Majid, uncovered more than 50,000 pebble and stone tools buried beneath the ash of the Youngest Toba Eruption in Sumatra about 74,000 years ago that blanketed the Kota Tampan site under a thick layer of volcanis ash. At Kampung Bukit Sapi, visitors can visited an exposed, vertical wall of pure white and light grey Toba volcanic ash that measures between 6 to 10 meters thick. 
• Kuala Selinsing Archaeological site: a significant protohistoric coastal settlement and ancient port located at Pulau Kalumpang within the Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve near Taiping, Perak. 
• Inhabited from roughly 200 BC to 1000 AD, it served as a major regional trading hub and feeder point long before the rise of the Melaka Sultanate. 
• 1932 - I.H.N Evans discovered the Kuala Selinsing Boat. Also discovered was a gold ring in Tanjung Rawa, Kuala Selinsing engraved with the name Cri Visnuvarmasya, possibly the King of Srivijaya as recorded in the Ligor B Inscription. 
• In 1935 , Dr. Ch. Chhabra wrote the hypothesis that the Selinsing gold had a writing pattern from the 8th century AD and the name Visnuwarmasya on the ring was the same as the name Visnuwarman in the Ligor B inscription.
• In 1940 - H.G. Quaritch Wales,British archaeologist - he published his opinion that Kuala Selinsing in Perak was a settlement belonging to Hinduised Indonesian immigrants. Writing in the "Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society". 
• In April 1955, G.de Sieveking,  conducted a second excavations at Kuala Selinsing, Perak. He recovered a remarkable total of 3000 glasses and polished stone beads from an 18-inch layer. 
• Lenggong Valley, Perak: 
• a UNESCO World Heritage Site featuring a 1.83 millior-year-old meteorite impact site linked to early tool development. 
• Mansuli Valley: located in the east coast of Sabah, East Malaysia, hosts the oldest chronometrically dated open-air site in Borneo, providing evidence of stone tool manipulation starting 235,000 years ago. 
• Maritime Archaeology : Shipwrecks in Malaysia :
• Atago Maru : Imperial Japanese Navy ship, sunk off Miri, Sarawak on 28 November 1944. 
• Awazisan Maru: Imperial Japanese Navy - A World War II Japanese troopship that was bombed and sunk off the coast of Kota Bharu.
• Bidong Wreck: a 16th century vessel discovered near Pulau Bidong carrying Thai ceramics, offering vital insights into Southeast Asia's monsoonal trading history. 
• Desaru : A Chinese merchank "junk" vessel that sank around 1845 after striking a coral reef off the coast of Johor Malaysia.Discovered in May 2001 at depth of 20 metres, the wreck yielded a massive cargo of over 50,000 Chinese ceramic soup spoons, blue-and-white porcelain and Yixing teapots. 
• Diana: the 176-year disappearance of a British merchant ship that vanished in the Straits of Malacca in 5 March 1817. The wreck was found with a cargo load weighing 11 tons in 1993. 
• Dom Duarte de Guerta: Portuguese warship - Sank 18 August 1606 (Battle of Cape Rachado). Discovered in 1993 at Port Dickson (13 km from Nassau) by Transea Sdn Bhd whence undertaking survey of Caroline (1816). 
• Haguro: Imperial Japanese Navy - A Myoko-class Cruiser that was sunk in the Straits of Malacca by British Destroyer on 18 May 1945. 
• Hatsutaka: Imperial Japanese Navy - A Hatsutaka-class minelayer that was torpedoed by USS Hawkbill off Pulau Tenggol on 16 May 1945. 
• HMS Prince of Wales & HMS Repulse: famous British Royal Navy capital ships were sunk by the Japanese air attacks in 10 December 1941 off the coast of Kuantan, Pahang. They remain protected war graves, though they face modern threats from illegal salvage operators. 
• HMS Stratagem: British Royal Navy ship - an S-class submarine that was sunk by a Japanese Submarine chaser near Batu Pahat, Johor on 22 November 1944. 
• HNLMS O 16 and HNLMS K XVII: Dutch submarines sunk by naval mines in December 1941 off the coast of Tioman in Pahang. 
• Jade Dragon: a 1300 AD Southeast Asian trading vessel discovered by fisherman in 2010 off the northern tip of Borneo in Sabah. 
• KM Sipadan : a former Royal Malaysian Navy Ship intentionally scuttled in 2012 to create a thriving artificial reef systems, sitting at a depth of roughly 30 metres. 
• Kuma: Imperial Japanese Navy - a Kuma-class light cruiser that was torpedoed by HMS Tally-Ho off Penang on 11 January 1944. 
• Kuroshio Maru: a Japanese tanker that was sunk as a target off Pulau Aur on March 1960. 
• La Paix : The French Merchant vessel,sank on 28 November 1895 at Beting Bambek near Cape Rachado (Tanjung Tuan). The Malaysian government authorized commercial exploration contracts to locate the vessel in the 1990s, though initial localized attempts to fully uncover the hull faced significant challenges.
• Longquan: a massive 14th century merchant vessel that sank around 1380 AD off the coast of Terengganu, Malaysia. Discovered in June 1996 at a deep and hazardous depth of 63 metres, it is recognised as one of the largest wooden shipwreck ever found in the South China Sea. 
• Middleburg: Dutch warship, Sank 18 August 1606 (Battle of Cape Rachado) - discovered 1993 at Port Dickson NS (13 km from Nassau) by Transea Sdn Bhd whence undertaking survey  for Caroline (1816).
• Nanyang : A late 14th-century merchant vessel that sank around 1380 in the South China Sea. Discovered in October 1995 at a depth of 54 metres, the wreck is located approximately 10 nautical miles off Malaysia's Pulau Pemanggil (near Tioman Island). 
• Nassau: a Dutch East India Company warship sunk in the 1606 Battle of Cape Rachado, discovered in 1993. The joint survey involving Transea Sdn Bhd, Oxford University and Malaysia's National Museum took place in 1995, recovering over 500 artifacts. 
• Pulau Melaka Wreck: discovered recently in 2025, off Melaka Island, the 13th to 16th century century wooden ship made of native saga wood dates back to the Melaka Sultanate transition period and contained rare coins and Chinese ceramics. First detected in late 2020 by independent researchers led by Dr. Dionysius Sharma.
• Ranee: SS Ranee, a 317-ton steel steamship owned by the Straits Steamship Company that sank on March 14, 1923, along the Sedili Coast of Johor, after colliding with another vessel named the Boribat. Discovered in 2005, sitting at a depth of 20 metres, approximately 5 nautical miles off Tanjung Sedili Kecil.  
• Risdam : the wreck of Risdam Merchant Ship was found in 1984 in the waters of Mersing, Johor. The ship belonged to the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and sank in 1727 AD.
• Royal Nanhai : a mid 15th-century Siamese merchant vesselthat sank around 1460 in the South China Sea. Discovered in 1992 at a depth of 46 metres, the ship was found roughly 40 nautical miles off the coast of Kuantan, Pahang and fully excavated by maritime archaeologist  Sten Sjostrand. 
• Sao Salvador: Sank 18 August 1606 (Battle of Cape Rachado) - discovered in 1993, Port Dickson, NS (13 km from Nassau) by Transea Sdn Bhd whence undertaking survey  for Caroline (1816).
• Singtai  : a mid 16th century trading vessel that sank around 1550 in the South China Sea. Discovered in April 2001 at a depth of 53 metres, the wreck is located roughly 12 nautical miles off the coast of Pulau Redang, Terengganu. 
• SS Amherst: a 108-tonne British steam vessel built in Glasgow in 1886 and registered in Singapore. On November 17, 1901, the ship sank on a sandbank in Sungai Pahang during a storm. Discovered in May 2016, the 30-meter remains of the wreckage were dramatically uncovered by local villagers at Kampung Tanjung, Paloh Hinai. 
• Tanjung Simpang :a 10th-12th century Chinese merchant vessel that sank off the Tip of Borneo (Tanjung Simpang Mengayau) in Kudat, Sabah. Dating to the Northern Song Dynasty, it is recognised as the oldest shipwreck ever discovered in Malaysian waters. It was found by local fishermanin April 2003 at a depth of 40 metres, just 400 metres from the shoreline. 
• Tanjung Tuan: Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan - The ships Nassau, Dom Duarte de Guerta, Middleburg and Sao Salvador were found in Tanjung Tuan, Port Dickson in 1993 by Transea Sdn Bhd. The Dutch warship sank on 18 August 1606 in a battle with a Portuguese ship in the "Battle of Cape Rachado".
• Turiang: a 14th century Chinese merchant vessel that sank around 1370 in the southern zone of the South China Sea. Discovered on May 13, 1998 at a depth of 42 metres and roughly 100 nautical miles off the coast of Peninsular Malaysia, it is historically celebrated as one of the earliest regional shipwrecks loaded with Thai export ceramics. 
• Vivian & Sons: January 2021: The Kuala Lipis shipwreck surfaced after a flood. The company name was found written "Vivian & Sons" and the year 1824.
• Wanli (1625): located off Dungun,Terengganu, this historic vessel was discovered with thousands of Ming Dynasty ceramic wares. 
• Xuande : a mid 16th century trading vessel that sank around 1540 in the South China Sea. Discovered in 1996 by maritime archaeologist Sten Sjostrand, the wreck sits at a depth of 53 metres,  approximately 30 to 39 nautical miles north of Pulau Tioman, Malaysia. 
• Mek Keldung : or Mek Keledung - a skeleton of 14,000-year-old prehistoric human discovered in Kelantan, Malaysia in November 2022 by a team from UKM, inside the Gua Keledung Kecil cave. 
• Metal Age: 2,500 years ago - The Malay Peninsula became a crossroads in the Maritime trade of the ancient age. Seafarers who came to Malaysia's shores included Malayo-Polynesian people, Indians and possibly Chinese traders among others. Ptolemy named the Malay Peninsula the Golden Chersonese.
• Mongoloid : an obsolete racial grouping of various indigenous to large parts of Asia, the Americas and some regions in Europe and Ocenia.
• Negritos : most probably the first inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula. These Mesolothic hunters were probably the ancestors of the Semang. 
• Neolithic: New Stone Age (10,000 - 5,000 years ago) - archaeological find from the Lenggong Valley in Perak show that people were making stone tools and using jewellery. 
• Niah National Park: 
• A curcial prehistoric cave system in Miri, Sarawak at East Malaysia containing human remains dating back approximately 40,000 years, alongside an extensicve Neolithic burial network. 
• in 1958 - Tom Harrison with his wife Barbara Harrison led the 1958 excavation at Niah Cave.They provide the first evidence of long-term human habitation in the region spanning tens of thousands of years. 
• Wikipedia : Niah National Park
• Palaeolithic : Old Stone Age, a prehistoric period lasting from about 3.3 million years ago to 11,700 years ago. 
• Penang Woman: a highly significant, 5,700 year old prehistoric human skeleton discovered accidentally in April 2017 in Guar Kepah, Seberang Perai, Pulau Pinang. Her ramins represent the first and only Neolithic (New Stone Age) skeleton found inside a shell midden. 
• Perak Man: 
• an 11,000 year old skeleton that represents Southeast Asia's oldest and most complete prehistoric human remains. Discovered in Gua Gunung Runtuh, Lenggong Valley in Perak in 1991.
• The only prehistoric skeleton in the world born with a congenital deformity known as Brachymesophalangia type A2. 
• Perak Woman: Found 13 years after the Perak man in a nearby cave complex, Gua Teluk Kelawar in 2004. living roughly 8,000 years ago. 
• Pioneering Figure: Proffesor Emeritus Datuk Dr. Siti Zuraina Abdul Majid is widely recognised as the founder of modern Malaysian archaeology. She discovered the Perak Man and instutionalised the discipline across the nation. 
• Pleistocene: a geological epoch that lasted from about 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago, famously characterised by repeated global glaciations. Frequently referred to as the Ice Age. 
• Pontian Boat: 
• an early historic lashed-lug wooden boat discovered on the banks of Pontian River in Pahang, Malaysia in 1926 by I.H.N Evans.It was regarded as one of the earliest known archaelogical examples of a lashed-lug boat in Southeast Asia, with radiocarbon dates placing it between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE.  
• C.A. Gibson Hill: discussed in detail the discovery of the Pontian Boat in his writings in 1956. C.A. Gibson Hill - MBRAS
• Proto Malays: Austronesian-speaking seafaring migrants who moved from mainland Asia into the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago between 2500 and 1500 BCE. 
• Pulau Kalumpang: 
• B.W.F Barnard: Deputy Conservator of Forests for Perak North. In May 1924, he discovered proto-historic human skulls, carnelian beads and blue glass at Pulau Kelumpang, Kuala Selinsing in Matang Perak. 
• In 1955, archaeologist G. de G. Sieveking discovered 3 ancient boats at Pulau Kalumpang, Perak. Believed to date between 200 BC and 1000 AD, these vessels are thought to have been used in animistic burial rituals by an early maritime community. 
• In 1987, Nik Hassan Shuhaimi conducted a new excavation in Pulau Kalumpang and succcessfully unearthed 11 burial, house post, wooden rice mortar, earthenware, stone artefacts, food remains, glass and stone beads, ear rings and organic materials. Base on the C14 dates, the site is believed to be inhabited between 200 BC and 1000 AD. 
• Rompin Boat : In 1902, American naturalist, William Louis Abbot documented a traditional wooden bark boat in Ulu Rompin, Pahang. 
• Tambun Rock Art: a series of Neolithic-era cave paintings at Gunung Panjang limestone hill in Tambun, Ipoh, Perak. It was discovered on a rocky overhang in 1959 by 2nd Lt. R.L. Rawlings of the 2nd Battalion, 6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles. 
• Sagor Boat: discovered by researchers from the University of Malaya in Baling, Kedah in 1996. It is believed to have been used around the 19th century AD.
• Sungai Batu Archaeoligical Site: in 2007 - The Sungai Batu Archaeological Site, Kedah was discovered by a research team from the USM Global Archaeological Research Centre (PPAG) led by Prof. Dato' Dr. Mohd Mokhtar Saidin.
• Sungai Bewah:  Located at Hulu Terengganu. Prehistoric artifacts including Neolithic pottery, bowls and stone axes were discovered near the Bewah River and Taat Cave. Early excavations in the Lake Kenyir by H.D. Noone in 1959, the finding confirmed that the region served as a vital settlement stie dating back over 10,000 years. 
• Twankoo Boat (Tuan-ku) - discovered by  Carl Alexander Gibson-Hill and  G.de G. Sieveking, a Chinese style Twankoo vessel. Assumed its creation to be in the late 16th century. 

Reference:

1. Zulheimy Maamor : Nota Ilmu: Arkeologi di Malaysia > Penemuan artifak, Prasasti, Candi-candi dsb.
2. Ian Glover : Southeast Asia from Prehistory to History. 
3. Abu Talib Ahmad : Museums, History and Culture in Malaysia. 
4. Arkeologi Maritim: Kapal Karam di Semenanjung Malaysia > Zainuddin Baco, Baszley Bee Basrah bee & Stephen Chia. 
5. Khazanah Kapal Karam : Nor 'Asykin Mat Hayin, Harian Metro
6. Penyelidikan Arkeologi Bawah Air di Semenanjung Malaysia (1902-2015) - Zainuddin Baco & Stephen Chia.
7. Islam dalam Sejarah Asia Tenggara Tradisional - Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah:Penerbitan Pena Sdn Bhd, 1989.
8. Zamir Mohyedin : Penemuan Rangka Berusia 14,000 tahun di Kelantan. 

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

26 July 2026: 11.32 am

MY NOTE BOOK : ANCIENT & MODERN HISTORY

• Achaemenid Dynasty: a royal house that ruled the Achaemenid Empire, which eventually stretched from Egypt and the Balkans in the west of Central Asia and the Indus Valley in the East. 
• Achaemenid Empire: an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus The Great of the Archaemenid Dynasty in 550 BC> 
• Age of Exploration: 
• 1500 CE - 1700 Ce : explorers like Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan, Zheng He etc.. traveled the world.
• Discovery of new lands.
• Akkadian Empire: an ancient kingdom established around 2334 BCE and the first empire in world history. Centered in ancient Mesopotamia and its territory is primarily lacated within modern-day Iraq and part of Iran, Syria, Turkey and Kuwait. Established by Sargon of Akkad after defeating the Sumerian King Lugal-zage-si.
• Al-Andalus: Muslim of Spain from 711 to 1492. A golden age of science, culture, art, agriculture and architecture. 
• Amorite: an ancient Northwest Semitic-speaking Bronze Age people who emerged from western Mesopotamia. Initially appearing in Sumerian records c. 2500 BC, they expanded and ruled most of the Levant and Mesopotamia, and part of Egypt, from the 21st century BC to the start of the 16th century BC. 
• Anatolia: also known as Asia Minor, isa peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. 
• Ancient Civilisation: 
• 3500 BCE - 500 CE 
• Rise of the First Great Civilisations, Mesopotamia, Egypt,Indus Valley and Chinese civilisation. 
• Invention of writing, development of Science and Mathematics. 
• Pyramids, Great wall of Chine etc.
• Ancient Kedah: known historically as Kedah Tua, Kataha or Kadaram, flourished as the oldest recorded civilisation in Southeast Asia. Nestled on the northwest coast of the Malay Peninsula, archaeological discoveries have completely rewritten regional history, revealing that a highly industrialised global trading society existed here as early as the 1st century CE. 
• Ashurbanipal: (668-627 BCE) - Sargonid Dynasty - the greatest king of Assyria, the last great king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, known for his military victories, administrative skills and love for knowledge. 
• Assyria:  a major ancient Mesopotamia civilisation that existed from the 21st to 7th centuries BC, which conquered and administered of West Asia from the Assyrian heartland in Upper Mesopotamia. Wikipedia : Assyria
• Atlantis : Plato wrote of a powerful island civilisation that sank beneath the sea in a single day and night around 9,600 BCE. 
• Austronesian Expansion: The most widespread migration event was the Austronesian expansion, which began around 5,500 BP (3,500 BCE) from Taiwan and coastal southern China. Due to their early invention of ocean-going outrigger boats and voyaging catamarans, Austronesians rapidly colonised Island Southeast Asia, before spreading further into Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Madagascar and the Comoros.
• Austranesian Maritime Trade Network: the first true Maritime Trade in the Indian Ocean, initiated by the Austronesian peoples of Island Southeast Asia. They established trade route with Southern India and Sri Lanka as early as 1500 BCE. 
• Aztec Civilisation : a powerful empire known for its culture, warrior spirit and architectural feast. 
• Babylonian Empire 
• Location - Mesopotamia between Tigris & Euphrates rivers, capital of Babylon.
• Descendants of the Akkandians, shared roots with Sumerian and Assyrians. 
• Hanging Garden of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. 
• Code of Hammurabi - early legal text. 
• Ban Chiang: the earliest known evidence of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia was found at Ban Chiang in north-east Thailand and among the Phung Nguyen culture of northern Vietnam around 2000 BCE. 
• Bronze Age: a major period in human history characterised by the widespread use of bronze to manufacture tools, weapons and armor. It began in the Middle East around 3300 BCE and advanced across Europe and Asia, lasting until its abrupt conclusion around 1200-600 BCE when societies shifted to iron working. 
• Buni Culture: early independent centre of refined pottery production that has been well documented on the basis of excavated burial gifts, deposited between 400 BCE and 100 CE in coastal north-western of Java, Indonesia. 
• Byzantine Empire:330 AD - Constantine found the new capital of the Roman Empire on the existing of the ancient Greek city Byzantium.It was renamed Constantinople and would become the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople is now Istanbul in Turkey. 
• Camelot : the legendary court of King Arthur,  a symbol of justice and chivalry - was it a real place or beautiful legend?
• Carthage: was founded around 814 BC by Phoenician settlers. Ancient Carthage was a city-state that ruled an empire through alliances and trade influence that stretched throughout North Africa dan Modern Spain. 
• Catal Huyuk: a massive Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia, Turkey, which flourished around 7000 BC,. 
• Celtiberians: Blend of Celtic and Iberian cultures. Famous for defending Numantia. 
• Celts: Iron Age tribes in the north and center. Fierce and warriors and skilled farmers. 
• Chalcolithic Age: 2000 BCE - 1000 BCE : Copper Stone Age, use of both stone and copper tools, advancement in agriculture and trade. 
• Chaldea: refers to a region probably located in the marshy land of Southern Mesopotamia. 
• Chinese Civilisation : Creators of silk, paper , gunpowder and timeless philosophies. 
• Ciudad Blanca : the "White City" is said to be a hidden civilisation deep in the Honduran jungle, protected by nature itself. 
• Classical Age: 
• 500 BCE - 500 CE - rise of Greek city-states and Roman Empire
• Life, teaching of Buddha and Confucius.
• Spread knowledge, art, literature and philosophy.
• Code of Hammurabi: the first written laws in history. 
• Contemporary Age: 2000 CE - present. Digital revolution and internet, globalisationand modern technology. 
• Copper Age @ Chalcolithic: an archaeological period characterised by the increasing use of smelted copper. It followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age. 
• Ctesiphon: ancient metropolis located on the eastern bank of the Tigris River in modern-day Iraq, roughly 35 km southeast Baghdad. Founded during the 2nd century BCE, it served as the glorious imperial capital of both Parthian and Sasanian Empires for more than 800 years. 
• Cuneiform: a logo-syllabus writing system that was used to write several languages of the ancient Near East. The script was in active use from the early Bronze Age until the 1st century BC. 
• Denisovans: believed to have lived in Asia and Oceania, from 200,000 to 40,000 years ago. But, before they disappeared, scientiests discovered that they may have met with Homo Sapiens. 
• Derinkuyu: The ancient underground city in Turkey discovered in 1963. The city had 9 levels, could accommodate 20,000 people, and included facilities such as stables, wineries , schools and chapels. It was built between 1200 and 1800 BC.
• Dhar Tichitt and Qualata: prominent among the early urban centres, dated to 2000 BC,in present-day Mauritania. 
• Djenne-Djenno: the civilisation of Djenne-Djenno was located in the Niger River Valley in the country of Mali and is considered to be among the oldest Urbanised centres and the best-known archaeology site in sub-Saharan Africa. 
• Dong Son Culture: a Bronze Age material centered on the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam. It is also found in other parts of Southeast Asia and China such as Malaysia, Laos and the Chinese province of Yunnan, Guangxi, Fujian from 1000 BC until 1st century AD. 
• El Mirador: ancient Mayan City, uncovered in Guatemala, contains one of the largest pyramid in the world. The La Danta Temple is about 72 meters, or 236 feet, high from the forest floor. 
• Epic of Gilgamesh: Copies found Ashurbanipal's library helped modern scholars recover one of the world's oldest great epics. A jamor version was found in Neneveh, it is one of humanity's earliest surviving literary masterpieces. 
• Egypt: Ancient Egypt was a long-lived civilisation located in north-eastern Africa. Ancient Egypt developed over at least three and half milennia. 
• Egyptian Hieroglyphs : the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt for writing the Egyptian language. Its combines ideographic, logographic, syllabic and laphabetic elements, with more that 1,000 distinct characters.  
• El Dorado: A golden city of unimaginable wealth to exist somewhere in South America. Many expeditions searched, but none ever returned with proof. 
• Funan and Chenla :1st-9th century CE - the earliest recorded Indianised polities located across southern Vietnam and Cambodia, acting as crucial early trade intermediaries. 
• Ghost city of Imet: 
• Hidden in the eastern Nile Delta, Known for Temple of Wadjet, tower house and recent rediscovery.
• Reveals daily life in an ancient Egyptian Delta city. 
• Gobekli Tepe: ancient site in Turkey built in 10,000 B.C is twice as old as Stonehenge. The oldest known sphinx was discovered at Gobekli Tepe in Turkey and dated to 9,500 B.C. 
• Gojoseon: Korea's first Kingdom - around 2333 BCE, Dangun Wanggeom founded Gojoseon, the first state of the Korean Peninsula. Overthrown by Han Dynasty of China in 108 BCE. 
• Golconda: a fortified citadel and ruined city located on the western outskirts of Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The fort was originally built by Kakatiya ruler Prataparudra in the 11th century out of mud walls. 
• Greek Civilisation: the foundation of democracy, philosoph, science and the arts. 
• Halaf Culture: a prehistoric period which lasted between about 6100 BC and 5100 BC. The period is a continuous development out of the earlier Pottery Neolithic and is located primarily in the fertile valley of the Khabur River (Nahr al-Khabur), of south-eastern Turkey, Syria and northern Iraq, although Halaf-influenced material is found throughout Greater Mesopotamia. 
• Harrappan Civilisation: (2600-1900 BCE) - one of the world's earliest urban civilisatioin, flourished in the Indus Valley. Famous sites is Mohenjo-daro. 
• Hellenistic Period: covers the time in Greek, Eastern Mediterranean and Middle Eastern History following Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. 
• Heracleion : an ancient Egyptian city that disappeared beneath the Mediterranean Sea 1,200 years ago, was found in 2000 and has been the focus of underwater excavation ever since. It is believed to have been flooded by an earthquake. 
• Hittites: an Anatolian Indo-European people who formed one of the first major civilisation of the Bronze Age in West Asia. Wikipedia: Hittites
• Hoabinhian: a lithic techno-complex of archaeological sites associated with assemblages in Southeast Asia from the late Pleistocene to the Holocene, dated to 10,000 to 2,000 BCE. 
• Homo Erectus : an extinct species of archaic human that lived from roughly 2 million years ago until about 110,000 years ago. It is the longest-surviving human species in history. 
• Homo Sapiens : the species of highly intelligent primates to which all living humans belong. Coined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, the name reflects our unique cognitive capacities. Developing in Africa roughly 300,000 years ago, Homo Sapiens outlasted all other hominin species species to become the sole surviving branch of the human family tree. 
• Iberians: Early inhabitants of eastern and southern Spain. Skilled traders and builders. 
• Inca Civilisation: Masters of mountain engineering and the Andes. 
• Indus Valley:Bronze age civilisation - in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE.It spanned much of Pakistan, northwestern India and northeast Afghanistan.
• Industrial Revolution:
• 1700 CE - 1900 CE : Machines replaced human labor
• Inventions like steam engine, electricity, telephone etc.
• Mark the beginning of modern industry, technology and urban life. 
• Iram of the Pillars : a magnificent city described in ancient texts as rich beyong belief, lost in the Arabian Desert over 2,000 years ago. 
• Iron Age: (1200 BC - 550 BC) - the final epoch of the ghree historical Metal Ages, after the Copper Age and Bronze Age. Wikipedia : Iron Age
• Jomon Period: In Japanese history, Jomon Period is the time between 14,000 and 300 BC,during which Japan was inhabited by the Jomon people, a diverse hunter-gatherer and early agriculturalist population united by a common culture, which reached a considerable degree of sedentism and cultural complexity. Their ancestors migrated from Northeast Asia, the Korean Peninsula, China and Southeast Asia. 
• Khmer Empire : 802-1431 CE - based in modern-Cambodia, this massive agrarian empire was famous for its advanced water management networks and construction of Angkor Wat, the world's largest religious monument. 
• Kingdom of Aksum: of Aksumite Empire- a kingdom in North East Africa and South Arabia from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, based in what is now Entrea and Northern Ethiopia, and spanning present-day Djibouti, Sudan, Yemen and Saudi Arabia.  
• Kingdom of Araba: commonly known as Kingdom of Hatra, was a semi-autonomous ancient Arab Kingdom that flourished during the 2nd century CE. Located between the Roman and the Parthian empires, mostly under Parthian suzerainty, in modern-day northern Iraq. 
• Kingdom of Kush:also known as the Kushite Empire, was an ancient Kingdom in Nubia, centered along the Nile Valley in what is now northern Sudan and Southern Egypt. 
• Kitezh: A Russian legend tells of a holy city that vanished beneath a lake to protect itself from invaders - and still appears to those who are pure of heart. 
• Kun-lun po: Austronesian ships, recorded in Han and Tang dynasty indicate that the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims to South Asia booked passage with the Austronesian ships, that traded in the Chinese port city of Guangzhou. The Austronesians were already sailing as far as East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula even during the earlier period. 
• Lapita Culture: the name given to a Neolithic Austronesian people and their distinct material culture, who settled Island Melanesia via a seaborne migration at around 1600 to 500 BCE. 
• Majapahit Empire: 1293-1527 CE - the final great Hindu-Buddhist empire, HQ in Java, which held nominal authority over a vast territory spanning modern Indonesia, Malaysia and the southern Philippines. 
• Malacca Empire & Sultanate: 1400 - 1511 CE - a powerful, wealthy maritime empire that established the "Golden Age" of Malay culture, trade and political identity. Centered in Modern-day Melaka in Malaysia, it dominated the strategic Straits of Malacca - the primary global maritime chokepoint linking India and the Middle East with China. 
• Maritime Silk Road:  or Maritime Silk Route - the maritime section of the historic Silk Road that connected Southeast Asia, East Asia, the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian Peninsula,eastern Africa and Europe. It began by the 2nd century BCE and flourished until 15th century CE. Maritime Silk Route was primarily established and operated by Austronesian sailors in Southeast Asi and by Persian and Arab traders in the Arabian Sea. 
• Maya Civilisation: advanced in astronomy, writing and calendar systems.
• Medes: an Iron Age Iranian people who spoke the Median Language, inhabited an area know as Media between western and northern Iran. 
• Medieval Age: 
• 500 CE - 1500 CE - rise and fall of kingdoms and empires.
• Spread of Islam and Christianity
• Crusades in Europe
• Construction of Castle and Cathedrals.
• Mesolithic Age :(10,000 BCE - 6000 BCE) -  the Old world archaeological period between the Upper Paleolithic and the Neolithic (Middle of Stone Age). Alternative names is Epipaleolithic. 
• Mesopotamia: First Civilisation in the world - a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris-Euphrates river system. It corresponds roughly to the territory of modern Iraq. 
• Mitanni: (1550-1260 BC) - a Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria and southeast Anatolia (modern day Turkey). 
• Modern Age: 
• 1900 CE - 2000 CE : Two World Wars
• Formation of United Nations
• Mohenjo Daro : one of the most famous cities of the ancient world. Built around 2600-1900 BC in the Indus Valley, located in Sindh, Pakistan. Known for planned streets and advanced drainage.
• Monte Alban: one of the first major cities in Mesoamerica, which today is known as the Mexican state of Oaxaca. 
• Nan Mandol: an ancient, abandoned megalithic city located off the eastern shore of Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia. Built primarily between 1200 and 1500 CE, the site served as the political and ceremonial capital of the Saudeleur Dynasty and is recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 
• Neo-Assyrian: the 4th and penultimate state of ancient Assyrian history.  Beginning with accession of Adad-niran II in 911 BCE. 
• Neolithic: or New Stone Age, an archaeological period, the final division of the Stone Age in Asia, Europe and Africa (10,000 BC - 2,000 BC). Wikipedia : Neolithic.
• Nineveh: ancient Near Eastern city of Upper Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day city of Mosul in northern Iraq.The largest city on the Neo-Assyrian Empire. 
• Nok Culture: appeared in Nigeria around 1000 BC and mysteriously vanished around 200 AD. 
• Nubis: the Ta- Seti kingdom in Nubia to the south of Egypt was conquered by Egyptian rulers around 3100 BC,but by 2500 BC the Nubian had created a new kingdom known as Kingdom of Kush. 
• Paleolithic : 2.5 million years ago to 10,000 BCE - or Old Stone Age - period of human prehistoric technology, extending from the earliest known use of stone toold by Hominins, c. 3.3 million years ago, to the end of the Pleistocene. 
• Parthia: was an Iranian civilisation situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran. The Parthian Empire was led by the Arsacid Dynasty. 
• Persian Civilisation: an Iranian ethnic group indigenous to the Iranian plateau in West Asia that comprise the majority of the population of modern-day Iran. A vast empire that championed tolerance, culture an innovation. 
• Pharos of Alexandria: first lighthouse in the world. 
• Phoenician: an ancient Semitic people who inhabited city-states in Canaan along the Levantine Coast of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily in present-day Lebanon. Pioneers of trade, writing and navigation. 
• Prehistoric Age: 2.5 million ago - 2500 BCE >  the period before written history. Most of the knowledge of that period comes from the work of archaeologists. Early humans appeared and development of basic tools. Humans learned to survive in nature and formed the first communities. 
• Ptolemaic Kingdom: an ancient Greek polity based in Egypt durign the Hellenistic period. Founded in 305 BC by the Macedonian General Ptolemy I Soter, a companion of Alexander The Great. 
• Reconquista: Christian kingdoms advanced southward for centuries to reclaim their lands. 
• Roman Civilisation : Masters of engineering, law, architecture and building an empire. 
• Sa Huynh Culture: between 1000 BCE and 100 CE, the culture that flourished along the south-central coast of Vietnam. 
• Sasanian Empire: an Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651 AD. 
• Seleucid Empire: in West Asia during the Hellenistic Period, founded in 312 BC by the Macedonians general Seleucus I Nicator. 
• Seuthopolis: ancient city found at the bottom of a lake in Bulgaria. Founded in 323 B.C. the city was discovered and studied between 1948 and 1954. 
• Srivijayan Empire: 7th-13th Century CE - centred in Sumatra, Indonesia this powerhouse controlled vital global maritime bottlenecks like the Straits of Malacca to monopolise trade between India and Chine. 
• Stone Age: prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make stone tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years and ended between 4000 BC and 2000 BC. Wikipedia: Stone Age
• Sumerian City-States: (3000-2334 BCE) - Southern Mesopotamia, where cities such as Umma, Uruk, Ur, Lagash and Kish competed for land and influence. It is independent city-states, each with its own ruler, patron god, temples and surrounding farmland. 
• Temple of Solomon : Sacred center of Israel, built by Solomon, the first temple in Jurusalem. It was destroyed by the Babylonians under King Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BC. Built specifically to house the Ark of Covenant, which contained the stone tablets of the Ten Commandments. 
• Ubaid Period: (6500-3800 BC) - a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia. The name derives from Tell al-Ubaid where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid Period material was conducted initially by Henry Hall in 1919, Leonard Woolley in 1922-1923 and later by Pinhas Delougaz in 1937. Excavations continue to the present day. 
• Uruk: one of the world's first Great Cities in Southern Mesopotamia (4000-3100 BCE). The first true city, early cuneiform writing. 
• Vilarinho Da Furna: ancient city in Portugas that lies underwater, but when dry period arrive, the water drops enough for it to be seen. The town, which is 2,000 years old, was destroyed in 1967 when an electric company built a dam. 
• Visigoths : German kingdom from the 5th to 8th century. Unified much of Spain and adopted Christianity. 
• Zakynthos: ancient masonry off the coast of Zakynthos, the Greek Island was discovered in 2013 by snorkelers. The lost city of Zakynthos was not created by humans, but by the methane-eating microbes. 
• Zapotec Civilisation: (700 BC - 1521 AD) - an indigenous pre-Columbian civilisation that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca in Mesoamerica. 
• Zerzura: a lost oasis in the Sahara Desert, mentioned in ancient maps and caravan tales, but never found. 

Reference:

1. History: Ancient History
2. Wikipedia : Ancient History

Updated:

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

16 July 2026: 11.45 p.m

NOTA ILMU: ANCIENT EGYPT

• Abu Simbel: Colossal statues of Ramses II.
• Ahhotep I : the powerful Egyptian Queen from 17th Dynasty.Known for Queen-regent during the wars against the Hyksos, helped to hold Egypt together and supported the rise of Ahmose I and the New Kingdosm. 
• Ahmose I : Founder of the 18th Dynasty (1549-1524 BCE) took throne as a child when Egypt was overrun the the Hyksos. Son of Queen Ahhotep I. 
• Akhenaten: (1353-1336 BC) - Son os Amenhotep III- husband of the famous Queen of Egyptian, Nefertiti, . 
• Amenemhat I: a pharaoh of ancient Egypt the first king 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. 
• Amenhotep I : (1525-1504 BC) - Consolidated the gains of his father Ahmose I and strengthened the kingdom.
• Amenhotep II : (1427-1401 BC) - maintained the strength and stability of the Egyptian Empire. 
• Amenhotep III (1388 - 1351 BC) - ruled Egypt for 38 years, largely presided over a peaceful and prosperous Egypt. 
• Ankh: The symbol of life - it represents eternal life and the connection between heaven and earth. 
• Ankhesenamun: wife of Tutankhamun, his half-sistem. She was the daughter of Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti. She once wrote a letter to the Hittite King asking for a son - possibly a prince to help Egypt. 
• Anput: Guardian of the Sacred Tombs - the feminine counterpart of Anubis, Protector of the dead. 
• Anubis : the Jackal-headed god of Death and mummification. 
• Anuket: Egyptian Goddess of the Nile River
• Ay (1323-1319 BC) - important court official who became pharaoh during a time of transition. 
• Bastet: The Cat Goddess of Egypt - goddess of the Sun, Fertility, Motherhood and Home Protector.
• Book of Dead: funerary papyrus crafted to protect Princess Nauny afterlife. It was not a single book, but a collection of spells chosen for the deceased. 
• Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira(185 - 116 BC) > Queen consort of Ptolemaic Egypt and wife of Ptolemy VI Philometor.
• Cleopatra VII: Ptolemaic Kingdom (51-31 BCE) - The final Pharaoh of Egypt, descendant of Ptolemy I. Companion of Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony. Committed suicide in 12 August 30 BC brought an end to the Egyptian Empire. 
• Dier El-Bahari : the mortuary temple, a masterpiece of ancient Egypt Architecture and the legacy of Queen Hatshepsut. Built during the 18th Dynasty (circa 1479-1458 BC) .
• Djedkare Isesi: 5th Dynasty Circa 2414-237 BC - Saved the state from administrative collapse. Promoted Osiris worship. Changed Egyptian governance for centuries. 
• Djoser:  (2686-2649 BC) - the second Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, reigning around 2670-2640 BC. He is best known for commissioning the construction of Step Pyramid of Saqqara.
• Early Dynasty Egypt : (3100 - 2686 BC) >Dynasty 1-2,  the first Emperor, Narmer, focused on Memphis
• Egypt:
• Home to the Great Pyramids of Giza
• The Nile River is the Longest River in the world.
• Over 2,000 Gods and Goddess
• Ancient Egyptians invented Hieroglyphs
• Mummies were preserved for the afterlife.
• Land of the Pharaohs & Stunning temples.  
• Egyptian Book of the Dead: Ancient Egypt's Guide to the Afterlife, a collection of spells and illustrations to help the dead navigate the afterlife.
• Eye of Horus: Symbol of protection, healing and royal power. It was believed to guard the pharaoh and the people. 
• Field of Iaru: The Egyptians believed that the righteous would live in the Fields if Iaru, a paradise of plenty, peace and eternal happiness. 
• First Intermediate Period  : (2181-2040 BC) > Dynasties 7-11 - Division of Power - Heraclepolis (Lower Egypt) vs Thebes (Upper Egypt). 
• Great Sphinx of Giza : a limestone statue of a reclining sphinx, a mythical creatures with the head of a human and the body of a lion.
• Hathor: Goddess of Love, Music, Beauty, Fertility, Motherhood and Joy. 
• Hatshepsut: (1479-1458) - wife of Thutmose II, one of the most powerful rulers of Ancient Egypt, She ruled around 1479-1458 BC, one of the first female pharaohs. 
• Hieroglyphs : the earliest writing system - the formal script for monuments, tombs and stelae during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. 
• Horemheb: 18th Dynasty (1319 - 1292 BCE) -  a low profile pharaoh but had a significant impact. He brought stability and prosperity back to Ancient Egypt. 
• Horus: Beast-Headed Gods of Egypt - Sky God and divine king, son of Osiris and Isis. 
• Hyksos : the kings of the 15th Dynasty of Egypt. 
• Intef III : the 3rd pharaoh of the 11th Dynasty. 
• Isis: Egyptian Goddess of Motherhood, magic, healing, protection, nature, death rites and rebirth. 
• Iyah Hotep : the warrior Queen who helped drive out the Hyksos and Restore Egypt's glory. Wife of King Seqenenre Tao during the 17th Dynasty. She in one of the earliest examples of a queen who played an active political and military role. 
• Karnak : a massive ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River in Luxor (Ancient Thebes). It holds the title of the largest religious site over constucted in the ancient world, covering more than 200 acres.
• Khafre: 4th Dynasty (2558 - 2532 BCE) - son of Khufu, builder of the middle Pyramid in the Gread Pyramid Necropolis at Giza. He's also believed to be responsible for the Great Sphinx flanking the causeway to his monument. 
• Khonsu: God of the Moon. 
• Khufu: (2589-2566 BC) - the Pharaoh who commissioned the Great Pyramid of Giza.  
• Late Period: (664-332 BC) > Saite Dynasty (26th), Psamtik I reunifies Egypt. Persian Achaemenid rule, Alexander The Great consuer Egypt (332 BC). 
• Ma'at : Goddess of Balance, Thruth, Justice and Harmony. 
• Mentuhotep II: the 6th ruler of the 11th Dynasty, the first Pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom. 
• Middle Kingdom  : (2030 - 1650) > Dynasties 11-13 - Reunification under Mentuhotep II. Height under Senwosret III, Prosperity under Amenemhat III. 
• Mut : Mother of the Gods, Lady of Heaven.
• Mutnodjmet: the Great Royal wife of Pharaoh Horemheb, the military general turned pharaoh who closed out Egypt's tumultuous 18th Dynasty. 
• Narmer : 1st Dynasty (3150 - 3100 BCE) - Early Dynasty Egypt. 
• Nauny : an ancient Egyptian princess and priestess who lived during the 21st Dynasty (1040-992 BC). Her resting place was discovered in the late 1920's at Deir el-Bahri within Theban Tomb 358.
• Neith : Goddess of Warfare and Motherhood. 
• Neithikret: may have been the first female pharaoh dating back to the 6th dynasty. The records of the Egyptian Rulers describe her as a male king. 
• Nefertari: the beloved Queen of Ramesses II. Lived in 13th century BC. Temple of Abu Simbel was built by Pharaoh Ramesses II to honor his beloved wife Queen Nefertari. 
• Nefertiti: Wife of Akhernaten - the powerful Queen of Amarna Period, lived during 14th Century BC.
• Neferusobek : 12th Dynasty circa 1806-1802 BC - the first female pharaoh in documented history. Established the precedent that made Hatshepsut possible. Ruled alone with full legitimate sovereignty. History gave Hatshepsut the credit. 
• Nephthys: Protective Goddess of the dead, mourning, night and the home. Sister of Isis and Osiris and wife of Seth.
• New Kingdom  : (1550-1070 BC)- Dynasties 18-20 - Famous ruler : Hatshepsut, Thutmose III and  Ramesses II. 
• Nut: Egyptian Goddess of the Sky,mother of Osiris, Isis, Seth and Nephthy.
• Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC) > Dynasties 3-6 -Era of Pyramid Building (Djoser, Sneferu, Khufu, Khafre & Menkaure. Rise of solar cult (Ra) and Osiris worship. 
• Osiris : God of the Dead and Lord of the Underworld, husband and brother to Isis. 
• Predynastic Egypt : (5000 - 3100 BC) > Development of Hieroglyphic writing. 
• Ptolemaic Period : (305-30 BC) > Ptolemaic Dynasty - Founder is Ptolemy I Soter. End of the Dynasty with Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony's defeat (30 BC). 
• Ptolemy I Soter  : Ptotemaic Kingdom (305-282 BCE) - established the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which rule for 250 years.
• Pyramid of Giza:the tallest man-made structure for over 3,800 years, built in honor for gods and pharaohs.
• Queen Tiye: (1398-1338 BCE) : one of the most powerful and influential women of ancient Egypt. She served as the Great Royal Wife of Pharaoh Amenhotep III during the height of the 18th Dynasty. She was also the mother of pharaoh Akhenaten and the grandmother of King Tutankhamun. 
• Ra : the Sun God and creator god. 
• Ramesses II : (1279-1213 BC) - constructed the massive monuments like Abu Simbel and also a great warrior, led the Egyptian forces at the Battle of Kadesh. 
• Ramesses XI : 20th Dynasty (1077 BC) - presided ove the end of the New KIngdom. Last King of an era. 
• Scarab: Symbol of Rebirth - transformation and protection. It was linked to the sun god Ra. 
• Second Intermediate Period  : (1640-1550 BC) > Dynasties 14-17 - Invasion by Hyksos. Expulsion of the Hyksos by Ahmose, founder of the New Kingdom. 
• Sekhmet: Warrior goddess of plague, destruction and divine wrath. Sent by Ra to punish humanity but nearly wiped out all life until tricked with red beer. 
• Selkit: the scorpion goddess of Ancient Egypt, guardian of the Dead and Tombs. 
• Senusret I  : 12th Dynasty (1971-1926 BCE) - ruled for 45 years during the Middle Kingdom. He built monuments such as the Heliopolis Obelisk. 
• Seshat: Goddess of Writing, Records and Sacred Knowledge. 
• Seth: Egyptian God of Chaos & Storms, brother of Osiris Isis and Nephthy. 
• Seti I: Egypt Pharaoh (1290-1279 BCE). Father of Ramesses II. Known for the temple and king list at Abydos. Helped to restore Egyptian power in the early 19th Dynasty. 
• Shoshenq I : 22nd Dynasty founder (943 BC) - founded the Libyan Dynasty. Became more Egyptian than most Egyptians. Raided Jerusalem, expanded Karnak. 
• Smenkhkare : (1336-1332 BC) - Mysterious pharaoh, it is unclear whether he was co-regent withAkhenaten or ruled alone. 
• Sneferu : Founder of the 4th Dynasty (2613-2589 BCE) - he built Egypt's great wealth through trade and war with Nubia (now Sudan) in the south. Built the Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid, the first true Pyramids. 
• Sphinx : the guardian of secrets and riddles, a mythical creature with the head of a human, the body of a lion and the wings of an eagle (oftern). It is a symbol of wisdom, strength and mystery in ancient mythology. 
• Sobekneferu : (1800-1785 BCE) - The Warrior Queen, first known woman crowned as Pharaoh in her own right and the last ruler of Dynasty 12. 
• Tefnut: the goddess of moisture, rain and life-giving water, the daughter of Atum and twin sister of Shu.
• Thebes: (22686-2181 BCE) - Sacred city of temples and tombs - earlier centers of Old Kingdom. royal and religious center of Egypt. Stood around the modern Luxor on both sides of the Nile in Upper Egypt. 
• Third Intermediate Period : 1070-664 BC) > Dynasties 21-25 -  Split power (Pharaoh vs High Priest ofAmun). Libyan Ruled (Dynasties 22-24), Nubian Reunification (25th Dynasty). 
• Thoth: God of Wisdom, writing and Magic.
• Thutmose I (1504-1492 BC) - expanded Egyptian rule into Nubia and Syria. 
• Thutmose II (1492-1479 BC) - short reign, continued the legacy of the precessors. 
• Thutmose III (1479-1425 BC) - a brilliant military strategist,conducted 17 successful military campaign. 
• Thutmose IV: 1401-1391 BC) - known for the Dream Stela, dedicated to the Sphinx at Giza. 
• Tutankhamun: 18th Dynasty (1332 - 1323 BCE) - knows as the "Boy Pharaoh", ascended to the throne at just 9 years old - ruled Egypt from around 1332-1323 BC. He ascended to the throne at a young age. His tomb was discovered in 1922. He became one of the famous pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. 
• Twosret: (1187-1185 BCE) - one of the last great queens of Egypt who ruled with courage during a time of decline. 
• Valley of The Kings: tombs of the pharaohs.
• Valley of the Queens: where royal women and children were laid to rest. The most famous in the New Kingdom,. It stands on the West Bank of Thebes, near the wider royal Necropolis and desert cliffs. 
• Was Scepter: symbol of Power, dominion and the pharaoh's authority. 
• Xerces I (486-465 BC) - reigned the 27th Dynasty during which time Egypt was part of the Persian Empire, having conquered in 525 BC.

Reference :

1. Wikipedia : Ancient Egypt

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

Updated: 24 June 2026: 11.38 p.m