NOTA ILMU: BUJANG VALLEY, SG BATU & ANCIENT KEDAH

A.D.Alastair Lamb suggested the glass fragments found at sites like Bujang Valley in Kedah and Kuala Selinsing in Perak originated from the Middle East and the Mediterranean. 

Abu Dulaf Misa'r stated that Kalah (Ancient Kedah) was a large kingdom surrounded by walls, flower gardens, water resources facilities, markets and houses with a large population (Braddell, 1950). Arab-Persian records state that Ancient Kedah was known as Kalah or Kalah-Bar.

Abu Zayd: In the book of Al Sirafi (915-916 C.E.), it is said that Kalaha (Kedah) is located in the Kalaha Sea between the Anwaq Sea, which is located in the land of Ajaib (Maldives), and the Kambuja Sea.

Akhbar as-Sin wa'l Hind: an Arabic record – stated that al-Zabaj, or the Srivijaya, has dominated the polity of Kalah Bar (Ancient Kedah). - Zuliskandar & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi, 2008).

Al-Idrisi, an Arab traveller and geographer, had recorded Ancient Kedah in his book Ar-Rujjar (1154 AD). He described Kalah as a vital port for merchants between India and China. 

Al-Jahiz: Qala'i Sword > "If it is made of Qala'i (Kedah), be careful."

Al-Khordadhbeh: The Persian geographer documented Qilah (Ancient Kedah) as a vital geopolitical and industrial powerhouse in his manuscript "Kitab al-Masalik wa'l-Mamalik", written in 846 CE. 

Al-Kindi: (Ya'qub Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi) In Al-Kindi's notes in the 9th century, it was mentioned that the best quality swords in the world were made from Yemeni, Qalai (Kalah) and Hindi iron. Kalah is Old Kedah. He noted this in his treatise "Risalah fi anwa'al-suyuf wa-aslahiha".

Al-Mas'udi wrote in "Muruj az-Zahab" that in the state of Kedah there are mountains and mines of tin and silver, as well as gold mines.

Anaimangalam Copper Plate: popularly known as Leiden Plates – a monumental 11th-century royal charter that provides historical evidence of maritime connection between the Chola Empire of South India and the Srivijaya Empire of Southeast Asia, specifically its key territory of Kadaram (Ancient Kedah). 

Ancient Kedah:

• existed long before the establishment of the Malacca Sultanate in the 13th century. 
• Recognised by early Western, Greco-Roman and Arab-Persian geographers as a premier maritime entrepot and industrial power in Southeast Asia. 
• Ancient Kedah appeared as one of the hubs for the trans-Asiatic trade network with the rise of the iron industry. 
• Different hypotheses on how Ancient Kedah emerged have been proposed by Quaritch-Wales (1940), Lamb (1961), Nik Hassan Shuhaimi (1984), Allen (1988) and Hergoualc’h (2002). Lamb, Nik Hassan Shuhaimi and Hergoualc’h each suggested that Ancient Kedah became a seaport after the 5th century AD.

Bennet Bronson: In his 1985 paper, "Notes on The History of Iron in Thailand", he re-evaluates early radiocarbon and thermoluminescence data. He conclusively argued that the Iron Age in mainland Southeast Asia began centuries before intensive contact with India or China (around 100 BC). This 5th-century BC timeline—and Bronson’s emphasis on independent regional technological development—directly sets the stage for the groundbreaking discoveries made in Ancient Kedah. 

Buddhagupta Inscription: Bujang Valley, one of the oldest inscriptions of Southeast Asia, marked the period of the existence of Ancient Kedah as an early polity. Mahanavika Buddhagupta was a mariner who lived possibly in the second half of the 5th century CE. 

Bujang Valley: 

• Surveyed by Quartritch Wales in the 1930s, found some 30 sites in the area. 
• a sprawling historical complex in Kedah, Malaysia, recognised as the richest archaeological area in Malaysia. It holds the remnants of an ancient seafaring polity known as Kedah Tua (Old Kedah), dating as far back as 788 BCE, Southeast Asia's oldest known civilisation.
• An area of approximately 224 sq km situated near Merbok, Kedah, between Gunung Jerai in the north and the Muda River in the south.  
• The first to write about Bujang Valley were the Indians. As early as the 2nd century BCE, Indian writing related trade between Bujang Valley and some ports of South India lasted until the 10th century CE. The inscription of Tanjore speaks of a king of Kedah and Srivijaya in 1007; the Chola seemed to have already attacked Kedah. 

Buzurg al-Ramhurmuzi: In "Aja'ibul Hind" > A Persian Muslim captain named Ismailuyah sailed from Kalah (Old Kedah) towards Oman in 929 AD.

Chieh-Cha:

• Another important Chinese record in 638 AD stated that Chieh-cha (Ancient Kedah) had sent their diplomatic mission to the Chinese court (Manguin 2022). 
• This Chieh-cha is the same as the Chieh-cha that I Ching visited during his time in this region, and the Chinese classified the polity as a guo (state) (Wheatley 1961; Zuliskandar & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi 2012: 100).

Candi Bukit Batu Pahat: the centrepiece at the Bujang Valley archaeological museum, built around the 11th and 12th centuries – contemporary to Angkor Wat. 

Craig Lockard: In "Southeast Asia in World History" – Kedah as an important early trading port at a major maritime crossroads, facilitating trade and cultural exchange for millennia with regions including India, China and the Middle East. 

G.R. Tibbetts, in "A Study of the Arabic Texts Containing Material on Southeast Asia" (1979), established that the old Arabic texts he studied, Kalah (Kedah), were the most frequently mentioned place in Southeast Asia after Zabaj. 

GARC: A recent finding by Universiti Sains Malaysia's Global Archaeological Research Centre (GARC) that the Malays also had strong commercial ties with India. It should have started at least approximately 1,900 years ago, involving the Kingdom of Kedah Tua.

Goh Hin San, Dato': Yi-Jing, the Buddhist monk who spent quite some time in Kedah, wrote that iron was part of a trade item in Kedah Port, or Chieh-Cha, as the Chinese called it, where they do not have the syllables 'Ke' and 'dah'.

Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, also known as "Kedah Annals", is a Malay literary work that gives a romantic account of the history and tales relating to the Malay Kingdom of Kedah. 

Horace Geoffrey Quaritch Wales: an archaeologist – with his wife Dorothy, in 1936 discovered the Bujang Valley at the Bukit Choras temple site. 29 temple sites, including Candi Batu Pahat, were discovered at that time, proving that there was a famous kingdom that received traders from all over Asia.

I-Tsing: 

• a Buddhist monk from China who has travelled from China to India and back and had also stayed in Srivijaya for a while during the 7th century AD. In 671 AD, I Ching stops in Chieh-cha (Ancient Kedah) before continuing the journey to Nalanda in India. 
• He referred to Kedah as Chieh Chia.
• On his way back from Nalanda in 685 AD, he again stopped in Kedah and reported that Kedah was then a vassal of Srivijaya together with Malayu (Jambi).

Ibn Khurdadhih: 9th-century Persian geographer, mentions Kalah (Kedah) in his influential work, Kitab al-Masalik wa al-Mamalik. His accounts serve as one of the earliest geographical descriptions of Southeast Asia from an Arab perspective. 

James Frederick Augustin, Dato' (Malaysian historian and educator), his book "Kedah Zaman Silam" (Bygone Kedah), focused on chronicling the history of modern Kedah rather than ancient Kedah. 

James Low: Archaeological studies conducted from the 1840s by Colonel James Low to the present day show that the ancient Kedah Kingdom existed from the 6th century BC to the 17th century AD and played an important role in trading activities.

Kadaram: The ancient Kedah was known as Kadaram to ancient Indians, Kalaha to ancient Arabs and Cheh-Cha to ancient China.

Kalagam: another name for Ancient Kedah mentioned in Pattinappalai. 

Kalagaththu Akkam: refers to goods or wealth coming from Kalagam (another ancient Tamil name for Kedah). 

Kalah: 

• Widely recognised by historians as Old Kedah (Kedah Tua).
• Modern historians and archaelogists confirm that the Arab accounts of "Kalah Bar" or "Kalah" point to Bujang Valley and Sungai Batu civilisations in Kedah, Malaysia. 
• The Arab traveller Abu Dulaf al-Khazraji in 940 AD explicitly recorded visiting Kalah, home to highly skilled blacksmiths. 
• The Arabic Kalah, or Kalah-bar, matches the timelines and phonetics of other ancient languages describing the exact same kingdom. The Indians called it Kadaram or Kataha, the Chinese referenced it as Chieh-Cha, and it later evolved into the Malay word Kedah.
• The Arab works, such as the 8th-century "Akhbar as-Sin wa'l Hind", state that Kalah was a vital dependency under the dominion of al-Zabaj (Srivijaya). This perfectly mimics Chinese accounts by I-Tsing, who noted that Kedah (Chieh-Cha) was a primary node of Srivijaya.

Kataha or Kalahbar: Ancient Arab traders referred to Kedah as Kataha or Kalahbar. 

Kathasaritsagara (Ocean of Stories): a Sanskrit literary work – The record was compiled by Brahman Somadeva around the year 1070 AD. Ancient Kedah was mentioned several times using the name Kataha Dvipa (Wheatley 1961).

Kaudimahotsava: A Sanskrit drama in the 8th century – also mentioned Ancient Kedah using the term Kataha-nagara. It is stated that Ancient Kedah is a famous city-port and has been continuously visited by Indian traders.

The Kedah Inscription, or Sanskrit Inscription of Kedah, dated 1086 C.E., left by Kulottunga I, was found in Kedah. It serves as definitive evidence of the continued commercial ties and political influence maintained by the Cholas in Malaya (specifically the ancient kingdom of Kadaram/Kedah) long after the initial 1025 CE naval raids by Rajendra Chola I.

Malay Civilisation: the earliest civilisation of the Malay Nation can be traced at Sungai Batu, Kedah, aged 788 BC. It is found in the western part of the ancient port, and 4 of the discoveries are over the age of 500 BC (Arkeologi Sg Batu, 2014).

Ma Tuan Lin: In his record it is stated that Chia Cha (Kedah) sent his envoy to China in the year 638 AD.

Merong Mahawangsa is a legendary figure believed to be the founder of the Kedah kingdom in local tradition. His story is recorded in the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, a traditional Malay historical literary work that combines elements of myth and legend. Raja Phra Ong Mahawangsa, one of his heirs, converted to Islam and took the name Sultan Muzaffar Syah, becoming the first sultan of Kedah.

Mokhtar Saidin, Prof.: In a recent study of Roman road construction, some of the iron that was used for the reinforcement came from Kedah.

Muhammad al-Idrisi: wrote in "Nuzhat al-Musytaq" that in Old Kedah there are tin ore mines and there are also many genuine gems.

Mu'jam al Wasif: the dictionary, the Arabic word for Kedah (Qaddah), can mean "a lump of iron that is heated to separate foreign materials contained in the lump. 

Nasha Rodziadi Khaw, Dr: Malaysian archaeologist and historian.

• He analysed the 10th-century Tamil epic Perunkathai to provide critical literary proof of Ancient Kedah's role as a major exporter of high-grade iron. 
• In his master's thesis, "Persejarahan Kedah Tua Satu Analisis Sosioekonomi" (The Historiography of Ancient Kedah). A Socioeconomic Analysis), he identified a highly specific with the Parunkathai – the Kataraththuirumpu. When translated from classical Tamil, this phrase literally means "Iron from Kataram" (Kataram being the historic name for Ancient Kedah). 

Parunkathai (10th c. AD): Tamil epic literature – states that Kadraththuirumpu, which means 'iron from Kataram' (ancient Kedah), was one of the materials used to produce the carriage of Princess Vacavathaththai (Rodziadi Khaw, 2011). 

Patriarch Timothy I: During the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Nestorian Patriarch Timothy I wrote that many monks journeyed to India and China. It is highly probable they would have passed through the Malacca Strait, stopping at major ports like Kalah (Kedah).

Pattinapalai: 

• Dated around 190-200 AD, it is stated that goods from Kazhagam are being traded in Puhar or in Kaveripattinam. The term 'Kazhagam' refers to Ancient Kedah (Nilakanta Sastri 1975). 
• a Tamil poem by Katiyalur Urutti in the 1st/2nd century AD which states that Indian traders exported iron from "Kataram" to make swords. Kataram is Old Kedah. (Note: the only text that mentioned iron of Kedah Tua was an Indian source of the Sangam Period).

Paul Wheatley: Book "The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500", University of Malaya Press 1966:

• The name of the Old Kedah Kingdom is found in Chinese records in 638 AD. In the Notes of Ma Tuan Lin it is stated that Chia Cha (Kedah) sent his envoy to the Chinese Palace in 638 AD.
• Abu Dulaf al-Muhalhil's notes about Kedah when he stopped in Kedah.

Ptolemy: Greco-Roman accounts by Ptolemy's Geographia (150 CE) mapped the Malay Peninsula, naming it the Golden Chersonese (Chryse Chersonesos), meaning the "Peninsula of Gold". Among the places in the map is Konkonagara, or Coli, pointing directly to the flourishing coastal and riverine networks of Ancient Kedah and Perak. 

Pulau Serai: Roman traders first made contact with early Kedah civilisation, Mount Jerai historically called Pulau Serai. 

Qal'a al-Rumi: according to recent research referencing classical Islamic scholars such as Al-Biruni and Al-Kindi, it refers to an area linked to ancient Kedah in the northwest of the Malay Peninsula. The convergence of the Islamic historical records with the archaelogical evidence from Sungai Batu in Kedah strongly suggests that Qal'a al-Rumi was not a mythical location. Rather, it was real, historically significant iron-producing in Southeast Asia that was well-known to early Islamic scholars and traders. 

Qalah: the Arabic world for ancient Kedah. In the 9th century, Al-Kindi explicitly ranks Qala'i swords among the finest blades in the known world, alongside those from Yemen and India. "Qalah", also spelt Kalah or Kalah-bar, is historically identified by scholars as Kedah Tua (Old Kedah) in modern-day Malaysia.   

Roland St John Braddell, Dato' Sir: British lawyer and historian:

• In his Writing in 1947, he analysed ancient Tamil epics; the Sillappadikaram, the place referred to as "Kidaram" or Kidaravan in classical poetry, was, in fact, Ancient Kedah.
• Braddell specialised in historical toponymy (study of place names). He compiled cross-cultural linguistics records to track how the port changed names across empires.
• Indian Sources: Kataha, Kadaram or Kidaram
• Chinese Sources: Chieh-Cha (noted by monk I-Tsing)
• Arab / Persian Sources: Kalah or Qalah (noted by Al-Kindi and Al-Biruni).
• He argued that Ancient Kedah was not just a minor coastal settlement but rather a primary trade and entrepot in Southeast Asia.
• He emphasised its geographical advantages, such as Mount Jerai as a natural seafaring monument for ships travelling seasonal monsoon winds. 

S.Q. Fatimi (1960): in the article "In Quest of Kalah" published in the Journal of Southeast Asian History, Fatimi posited that Kalah, a key trading port in Ancient Arab and Persian descriptions, was situated in the Malay Peninsula, specifically in the Klang area. This was based on the archaeological findings of ancient iron smelting sites discovered in the 1940s near Bukit Badak, Klang, Selangor. However, the discovery of the Sungai Batu Archaelogical Complex has changed Fatimi's statement, which is that Kalah is located in Kedah.

Sayf al-Hind or Qala'i: Historical Arabic terms that refer to high-quality steel swords produced in Southeast Asia, specifically in the ancient ironworking of Old Kedah (known to Arabs as Kalah).

Sheikh Daud Al-Fatani: Writing a book of Malay origin > The arrival of Sayyid Sheikh Abdullah Al Qumairi Yamani with 11 other companions at the peak of Mount Jerai, Kedah Darul Aman.

Sillapadikaram: 

• One of the Tamil epics has been dated around the 2nd to 3rd century AD, during the Sanggam age. It is stated that the Malay Archipelago has already established a trading network with Southern India.
• A merchant ship from Tondi that came to Madurai with spices such as cloves and black pepper, along with aloe vera from Kidaravan, which is to say Kidaram (Ancient Kedah) (Braddell, 1947). 

Sui Shu: (History of the Sui, completed in 636 CE), Kedah was called Chitu, Jietu, Geluo or Geluofashaluo. Two missions were sent from China in 607 and in 610. 

Sulayman al-Tajir: Akhbar al-sin wa al-Hind (Account of China and India), 851 CE – one of the earliest Arab accounts of India. Edited later by Abu Zayd al-Hasan al-Sirafi as Silsilat-al-Tawarikh in 916 AD. 

Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin official log: Iron from Kedah as one of the export commodities.

Sultan Muhammad Jiwa II is among the longest-reigning monarchs in the world, beating Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Sultan Ibrahim Iskandar of Johor, who only reigned for 63 years.

Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex: 

• One of Southeast Asia's most important archaeological discoveries. In ancient texts, this region was famously known as Kalah or Kataha. 
• The surface finding of the Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex (SBAC) was first reported by Jane S. Allen in 1988. In her 1988 dissertation, she officially catalogued the archaeological mounds and surface finds in the Sungai Batu area as Sites No. 71, 72, and 73.
• USM's finding at the Sungai Batu in Bujang Valley, Kedah, from 2009 confirms vibrant iron smelting and other metallurgical activities as well as maritime trading activities in the vicinity back to the 4th century B.C.E. Iron smelting at Sungai Batu has existed as early as 788 B.C., which proves that the Malays have established a civilisation, and it is believed to be the earliest to be established in Southeast Asia, earlier than even the Romans and the Greeks. 
• Archaeologists have identified 17 distinct smelting sites within the complex. 
• Millions of clay tuyere fragments (the blowpipes used to pump air into furnaces, 12 cm x 25 cm) have been found, indicating massive, sustained production. 
• At Kampung Padang Chicak, Jeniang, a large furnace was discovered measuring 496 cm in diameter and 108 cm in height, associated with a water-holding feature (309 cm x 47 cm).
• The Sungai Batu iron industry rewrites history. It proves that ancient Kedah was a major centre of metallurgy and international trade in Southeast Asia — a sophisticated hub linking local innovation with global networks long before many other civilisations.

Tamil Literature:

• Parunkhatai, another Tamil epic dated in the 10th century AD, had mentioned Ancient Kedah, as Kataraththu Irumpu denotes "iron came from Kataram", which refers to Ancient Kedah (Zuliskandar et al. 2017). One of the materials used to produce the carriage of Princess Vacavathaththai (Rodziadi Khaw, 2011).
• Sillapadikaram and Pattinapalai: Tamil literature are the first type of Indian written records concerning the Ancient Kedah. 
• The Pattinapalai poem mentions trade goods from Kazhagam (ancient Kedah) that were traded in the port of Puhar Kaveripattinam.
• The Sillapaddikaram poem mentions a merchant ship from Tondi that came to Madurai with spices such as cloves and black pepper, along with aloe vera from Kidaravan, which is to say Kidaram (ancient Kedah) (Braddell, 1947).
• Iron from Kedah was recorded in the Indian poem of the 2nd century AD.

Tanjore Inscription (Thanjavur): from around 1030-1031 CE, records the successful naval attack on Kedah (referred to as Kadaram) by the Chola Kingdom under the command of King Rajendra 1 in 1025 CE. 

Thomas Bowrey: Representative of the French East India Company who wrote about Kuala Perlis in 1670: "Send 5 or 6 more (men) to go to Pullo Lada or Purles, which are places belonging to this King (of ​​Kedah) where tin and pepper may be bought at cheaper rates than here."

Tong Dian: A Chinese encyclopedia that mentions that the name Kalah (Kedah) or Great Kalah has been heard since the Han Dynasty era (206 - 220 BC).

Wenxian Tongkao: Chinese encyclopedia compiled by Ma Duanlin during the Yuan Dynasty > document that the polity of Chieh-Cha, a name widely associated with Kedah, sent tribute to the Tang Court in China in 638 AD. 

Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi: the quality of iron products of ancient Kedah was among the top three in the world, sharing pride with Yemen and India (Hoyland and Gilmour, 2006).

Reference:

1. Wikipedia: History of Kedah
2. Wikipedia: Bujang Valley
3. Scoop: Gunung Jerai: unearthing its history, unveiling its mystery.

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

Lembah Keramat, K.L.

18/11/2025: 9.23 p.m.