A. Cabaton: The Malayo-Polynesian languages, a much broader family that includes both Chamic and Polynesian. Chamic language belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family.
Abdul Hamid Zamburi : He studied the book "Geographike Huphegesis" by Ptolemy around 150 AD which mentioned a place called Coconagara located in Avrea Cheronesvs (Golden Peninsula, referring to Malaya). Phonetically, the pronunciation of Cocanagara seems to be similar to the pronunciation of Gangga Negara.
Abu Dulaf al-Muhalhil: in Majmu'Fil Jughrafiyya > One of the 8 swords in the collection of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is from Old Kedah, namely the Qala'i Sword.
Adriaan Reland : the Dutch Scholar in 1706, the first to observed similarities between the languages spoken in the Malay Archipelago and by the people in the Pacific Ocean.
A.H. Hill: In his study "The Keris and other Malay Weapons" published in 1970 Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society > the Malays fought using firearms such as Lela, Rentaka, Pemuras, Terakor and istinggar.
A.J. Barnet Kempers: The keris is a result of the influence of the Dongson bronze culture in northern Vietnam which is believed to date back to 2,500 BC.
Al-Biruni: Persian polymath (973-1050) > referred the islands of Zabaj as Suvarnadvipa (The Golden Island) in his encyclopedic work on India the Kitab al-Hind. Suvarnadvipa is widely used for Sumatera by various ancient travelers.
Albert S. Bickmore: "Travels in the East Indian Archipelago" >
- he wrote about 2 mountains known as Mount Ophir, one in Palembang, while the other is located 40 miles north of Malacca, known as Gunung Ledang.
- Bickmore's account references the European belief, dating back to the Portuguese colonial period, that Mount Ophir in the Malay world was the source of gold for King Solomon's temple, as mentioned in the Bible.
Alexei Butakov: Russian Naval Officer, among the earliest Russians to set foot on the Malay Peninsula in 1840. He wrote about the Malays "Malays have more noble qualities, they are loyal, true to their word." "The wealth of its natural produce may well rank Penang among the richest islands of the world."
Alfred Russel Wallace in the “The Malay Archipelago” (1863) mentioned “the Malay Archipelago as the whole Southeast Asia that forms a triangle, starting from Nicobar Island in the East Sea to the Solomon Islands in the South East, and Luzon in the North to Rotti near the Island of Timor in the South.”
Amis Francophones du Pantoun: (French-speaking Friends of the Pantun) founded by Georges Voisset in 2012 - introducing the traditional Pantun to a wider French-speaking audience.
Ananda Kumaraseri (Datuk Dr.) : New Straits Times (2012) > The Malays are the most dominant ethnic group in Malaysia identified as coming from Tibet and the Yunan region in Southern China.
Ancient Egyption Mummification:
- There is no direct evidence to confirm that the Pharaoh's body was preserved with special camphor from Malay Peninsula.
- However, there are scientific findings that show materials from Southeast Asia were used in the mummification process, thus strengthening the theory of the existence of an extensive ancient trade network.
- Chemical analysis of preservative residues from ceramic jars in a mummy workshop in Saqqara, Egypt, revealed exotic materials imported from distant locations.The study detected the presence of resin, which comes from trees in Southeast Asia. The discovery suggests that ancient trade networks linked Egypt with Southeast Asia as early as 3,000 years ago.
- There is a theory that states the ancient Egyptians may have used camphor from Sumatra (Indonesia) in the mummification process, based on the records of the Greek historian, Pliny the Elder. Records also show ancient Kedah Tua to be an active maritime trading center, which may have supplied materials such as camphor to the world.
- Many of the substances already known to be used in mummification, but some were new. The study found that many of the embalming ingredients came fromother countries far away.
- LMU Archaelogist Professor Philipp Stockhammer explained " What really surprised us was that the bulk of the substances used for embalming was not from Egypt itself. Some of them were imported from the Mediterranean region and even from tropical Africa and Southeast Asia."
- While the resin of the elemi tree came to Egypt from tropical Africa or Southeast Asia, the dammar tree to this day still grows solely in tropical Southeast Asia.
- Dammar resin was indeed used in ancient Egyptian mummification, and its discovery highlights the vast trading networks that existed thousands of years ago. Recent chemical analysis of residue found in embalming vessels has confirmed the presence of dammar, which comes from trees found exclusively in tropical Southeast Asia.
- Elemi resin, which comes from trees in Southeast Asia or tropical Africa.
- Dammar resin, which grows only in tropical Southeast Asia, specifically from trees in the Shorea or Hopea genera.
- The presence of these imported, non-native materials demonstrates the existence of long-distance trade routes connecting ancient Egypt with Southeast Asia as early as the first millennium BCE. This discovery provides compelling evidence of the sophisticated supply chains developed by the ancient Egyptians to acquire specific ingredients for their sacred embalming process.
Ancient Term of Malay Peninsula:
- Chersonesus Aurea: Latin for "Golden Peninsula" - the name used by Greco-Roman geographers for the Malay Peninsula in classical antiquity.
- Suvarnabhumi : "Land of Gold" in Sanskrit refers to Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.
- Suvarnadvipa : "Island of Gold" in Sanskrits refer to Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.
- Shiji and Hanshu: Ancient Chinese Text, referenced trade good from the area, such as Borneo Camphor (Kapur Barus), demonstrating early knowledge of the region.
Antonio de Morga : in his book " Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas" (Historical events of the Philippines Islands), gave an idea of the connection between the people of Luzon and nearby islands to the rest of the Malay Archipelago.
Arnold Henry Savage Landor: in the book "Across Unknown South America" > states the similarities between the Malay language and the language of the Native Americans, Bororo.
Arthur Edward Powell: in his book "The Solar System" chapter 35 that the root of the 4th race of Lemuria is Malayan Brown which means Malay family or its scientific name is Austronesian-Polynesian. This 4th root is called Atlanteans.
Aru (Haru) : A historical Malay kingdom that existed on the eastern coast of Sumatera in present day Indonesia between 13th and 17th century. It was a major maritime power that controlled the northern of the Malacca Strait.
Arysio N. Dos Santos (Prof.) : Brazilian nuclear Physicist. In his book "Atlantis: The Lost Continent Finally Found", 2005 - he proposed that Sundaland was the location of the mythical lost continent of Atlantis.
Atlas Lopo Homem-Reineis a.k.a Atlas Miller: an atlas drawn by Portuguese cartographers named Lopo Homem, Pedro Reinel, Jorge Reinel and Antonio de Holanda in 1519 which is now stored in the National Library of France. Miller's Atlas is the first Atlas that describes the existence of Malay Jong. (Jim Siebold, 2016)
Augustus Henry Keane (1833-1912) : British ethnologist > asserting a close linguistic relationship between the Malay and Khmer languages.
Austric Phylum: The origin of the Malay language is from the Austric Phylum which is divided into 3 large language groups, namely Austroasiatic, Austronesian (formerly known as Malayo-Polynesian) and the Tibeto-Chinese group.
Austronesian:
- A group given by Linguistic scholars to a group of languages that includes Hawaii. Southeast Asia, Taiwan to Madagascar. This linguistic group is called Malayo-Polynesian. Malay is the most widely spoken Austronesian language, with about 300 million speakers.
- The word Austronesian is a combination of 2 words, Austro and Nesos. The word Austro comes from Latin meaning South, while the word Nesos comes from Greek meaning Island. So Austronesian means Southern Islands.
- Austronesian Reach: The ancestors of Austronesian peoples—including Malays, Indonesians, and Polynesians—are known for one of the most remarkable maritime expansions in human history, covering a vast area stretching from Madagascar to Easter Island.
B.W.F Barnard: his report in May 1924 to the F.M.S Museum regarding the discovery of archaelogical artifacts in the Kuala Selinsing, Perak which include Skulls, Beads and Blue glass.
Bernard Bronson (1985): "Notes on the history of Iron in Thailand, Journal of the Siam Society" > Archaelogical studies in Southeast Asia show evidence that the Iron Age began at least in th 5th B.C.
Bai Yue:
- an indigenous peoples with very close relationship, distributing from South China,Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. Chinese historians and archaeologists mainly discussed the origins of Malay ethnics as one branch of Austronesian.
- The early researchers including Lin Huixiang, Ling Chunsheng and Xu Songshi, put forward the viewpoint that the Malays had originated from Bai Yue cultures in southeast of China. They are believed to have been ancestors of modern Austronesian peoples, including the Malays.
Bennet Bronson: In his 1985 paper "Notes on the History of Iron in Thailand" published in the Journal of the Siam Society : Reliable evidence pointed toward iron smelting beginning in the region around the 5th century BC.
Besut: The Besut Darul Iman Kingdom was a historic Malay kingdom that existed in the northeastern part of the Malay Peninsula from 1780 to 1899. It was a protectorate or colony of the Terengganu Sultanate.
Britannica Encyclopedia :defines the Malay or Orang Melayu, any member of an ethnic group of the Malay Peninsula and portions of adjacent islands of Southeast Asia, including the east coast of Sumatera, the coast of Borneo, and smaller islands that lie between these areas.
Bhumi Malayu: mentioned in
Prasasti Padang Roco dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana, which is associated with Dharmasraya Kingdom.
Budhagupta Inscription:
- found in Seberang Prai, P. Penang in 1834 by Captain James Low, proves that the Chih-tu Kingdom really existed in Northern Malaysia around the 4th-5th century AD. The second was found in 1980 in Kampung Sungai Mas, Kedah.
- Historian J Laidlay in 1848 translated the text of the inscription which was written in Pallava script (400-500 AD) and Pali language containing Buddhist teachings and stating the successful voyage by a ship captain named Budhagupta, a resident of the State of Tanah Merah (Chih-tu).
Bukit Bunuh:
- a hill located in Perak, a geological and paleoarchaeological site. This area shows the existence of the Homo Erectus species dating back more than 1.83 million years ago.
- Bukit Bunuh is the oldest archaelogical site in the world outside Africa, it turned into one of the most important archaelogical sites in the world.
Bukit Choras: The USM Global Research Centre, led by Dr. Nasha Rodziadi Khaw, found 2 almost complete life-size Buddha statues and inscriptions at Bukit Choras Archaelogical Site in Kedah, Malaysia. The discoveries are believed to be older than the famous Borobudur temple in Indonesia and Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
Camphor:
- A kapur Barus in Malay > it is from Nusantara being used in mummification at least since 3,000 years ago. Researches believed it has been quite long as Spice Route already exist 5000 years ago.
- The Borneol (camphor) from Southeast Asian camphor trees is a highly-prized crystalline resin, and there is evidence it was traced to the ancient Mediterranean.
- The use of camphor highlights the extensive long-distance trade networks of the ancient world. The type of camphor potentially used, Dryobalanops aromatica (borneol), is native to Maritime Southeast Asia. The presence of such an exotic item in ancient Egypt suggests a long and sophisticated trade route, possibly through the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea.
- 3rd or 4th century AD, Chih Tu Kingdom sent "Long-nao xiang" which is a very quality camphor (Kapur Barus) sent to China Emperor Court. Chih Tuh located at Malay Peninsula.
- I-Tsing mentioned about P'olu-shih (Camphor perfume), camphor is one of precious item exported by Srivijaya Kingdom.
- In 9th century AD, the book "Ajai'ib al-Hind" mentioned a place named Fansur. Fansur is a port that camphor come from as mentioned in a book named "Akhbar al-Sind wal Hind" (851 AD).
- Marco Polo: he went to Southeast Asia in the 11th century but never went to Fansur. He did mention in his account that the best camphor (Kapur Barus) originated from Fansur (Barus).
- Negarakertagama : The first time the place called Barus mentioned was in Negarakertagama written in Java during Majapahit Kingdom in 1365AD. Barus is the name of the place where camphor is produced.
- Sumio Fukami: He examined the Chinese Shiji Text and Hanshu Text says that camphor (Kapur Barus) from Southeast Asia was already known in Guangzhou as early as 2nd century B.C. or even earlier.
Carolyn Kizer: the Pulitzer Prize winner in 1985. She used the pantoum (derived from Malay Pantun) in her work "Parent's Pantoum".
Chambers & Edinur (2013): Genetic studies conducted show that Malays and Maori are closely related, meaning they share the same ancestors.
Chang Jun: Chinese ambassador from Sui Dynasty, during his mission to the kingdom of Chi Tu in 607 CE. His account describes the geography of the Malay Peninsula and help scholars locate the position of Chi Tu relative to Langkasuka.
Charles Baudelaire: a famous French Symbolist poet, was greatly influenced by Malay pantun which he was introduced to through the works of Victor Hugo. He went on to use a poetic form adapted from pantun, known as pantoum, in one of his most famous poems.
Cheah Boon Kheng (Professor): Malaysian historian.
- he refuted the claim of former Australian journalist, Alex Jorsey, who said that Malays have no history other than being pirates. He argued that this narrative was a colonial-era stereotype used to dismiss the rich history and achievements of the Malay civilisation.
- Long before European powers arrived in the region, the Malay Archipelago was home to powerful maritime kingdoms like Srivijaya and Malacca.
- He presented evidence of a sophisticated Malay civilization with complex political, social, and cultural systems that existed long before the Europeans arrived.
Chersonesus Aurea: or the Golden Peninsula - first reference in the atals and gazetteer of Greek Philosopher Cladius Ptolemy in 150 BC. It includedd the entire Malay Peninsula which formerly consisted of Peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar dna Thailand.
Chi'en Han Shu: a source of Chinese writing, there was a relationship between the Kingdoms in the Malay Peninsula, namely the Kingdom of Fu-Kan-Tu-Lu and Emperor Wu-Ti of the Han Dynasty between 141 BC and 87 BC.
Chih Tu Guo Ji: Chinese Source > The Sui Dynasty government sent envoys to Chih Tu in 607 - 610 AD. The Chih Tu kingdom was part of the Kingdom of Funan based in present-day Vietnam.
Chi Tu Kingdom:
- Chinese record : Chi Tu means "Red Earth Country" in Chinese, described in the Sui Dynasty of the 7th century.
- Historians have suggested several possible locations for Chi Tu :> Tanah Merah in Kelantan, which means "Red Earth" in Malay and Pattani Province in Thailand.
- Indian influences : its Sanskrits name was "Ramtamrittika" .
- Tatsuo Hoshino, a well known scholar has written about the Kingdom of Chi Tu Guo, published in the Journal of the Siam Society in 1996, argues that Chi Tu was located in modern-day Kelantan in Malaysia.
Chu-fan-chi (1225): This later record makes a more explicit distinction, stating that Palembang (Pa-liem-biung or Jiu-gang, "Old Port") was one of the vassal states belonging to San-fo-chi. Crucially, it does not mention Jambi or Malayu as vassals, which supports the view that the center of San-fo-chi had moved away from Palembang, possibly to Jambi.
Cornelis de Houtman: Dutch explorer - observed linguistic connections between Madagascar and the Malay Archipelago a century earlier in 1603.
Cri Visnuvarmasya: The discovery of gold ring in 1932 in Tanjung Rawa, near Selinsing, Perak by I.H.N.Evans, an English ethnographer and curator of the FMS Museum. The gold ring inscribed the name of Cri Visnuvarmasya, translates to "Lord Visnuvarman" suggest the presence of Indian cultural or trade influences at the Selinsing sites.
Dan Ming: Chinese record > mentioned about the Malay. The world Malay was pronounced in accordance to the Chinese accent such as Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er and Oo-lai-yu.
Daoyi Zhilue : a book written by Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) traveler named Wang Dayuan > Langkasuka was known as "Long-ya-xi-jiao".
Datuk Dr. Wan Hashim Wan Teh : Malaysian archeologist that published the latest theory about the origins of the Malay said that the Malay were in the country since 74,000 B.C. rejected the earlier theories that the Malay came from Yunnan and Taiwan.
Davisakd Puaksom: wrote for his thesis at the National University of Singapore that he had found surprising evidence of the influence of the Malay language as a Lingua Franca in the Ayutthaya Palace.
De Silva (Prof. Dr.): Sri Lankan Archaeological Researcher and Historian > he has analyzed archaeological materials and found that there has been a civilization in the Malay World since 15,000 B.C.
Deutro Malay: These later Austronesian peoples arrived during the Iron Age (around 300 BCE) from mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of Cambodia and Vietnam. They brought more advanced farming and metalworking techniques. The Deutero-Malays are considered the direct ancestors of the modern Malay people.
Dirk Van Hogendorp: Dutch military officers involved in the Dutch attack on Kuala Selangor said that the Dutch had seized 68 cannons in the Fort and Fortress in Kuala Selangor.
Dom Paulo Lima de Pereira: In a letter to King Philip dated 18 November 1587, there is mention of warships belonging to the Johor Kingdom that were successfully defeated by the Portuguese during the Portuguese attempt to capture Johor Lama and Kota Batu. Among these ships were a type of large ship called Galleons.
Donald Justice: he use the pantoum (Malay pantoum poetic) to explore themes of the Great Depression.
Dong Son Drum:
- is a bronze drum that was found in Batu Buruk, Kuala Terengganu in 1964. Also found in Sungai Tembeling, Pahang in 1926.
- Dong Son drums originate from the Dong Son culture which flourished in northern Vietnam, particularly around the Red River Delta, from around 600 BC to the first century AD.
Dong Yen Chau Inscription: (350 CE)
- found in 1936 at Dong Yen Chau, Tourane Bay, Southern Vietnam
- using Pallava script > earliest written record of Malay language in the 4th century AD through the Champa Malay Civilization.
- Old Cham and Old Malay are closely related, both belonging to the Malayo-Chamic subgroup of Austronesian languages.
- The inscription provides evidence for the presence of an Austronesian-speaking population in mainland Southeast Asia as early as the 4th century CE.
- The earlies inscription of the Srivijaya Empire in Sumatera.
Dudley Francis Amelius Hervey (1849-1911): British advisor in Malaya stated that he had seen Kota Gelanggi in 1881.
E.H. Schafer (1957): "There is a record that in the year 554, Malay juak-juaks were assigned by the government of Emperor Fei of Western Wei (China) to herd 2 war elephants from Lingnan (now South China & Vietnam).
Early hominins in Southeast Asia: The earliest evidence of maritime travel comes not from modern humans, but from our ancient relatives, the hominins. Archaeological data from Wallacea (Indonesia) shows that seafaring began at least 900,000 years ago. These hominins had to cross deep-water channels that were never connected by land bridges to reach islands like Flores. (Google AI Overview).
Edwin Doran Jr. (1974): Polynesian ships are inspired by Malay boat technology - Polynesia is famous for 'catamaran' boats and "outrigger canoes" - the same concept in ancient Malay shipping traditions such as Jong, Pelang and Jolo. Studies show that this technology originated in Southeast Asia and expanded to the East.
Emily Innes: "The Chersonese with the Gilding off: (1885) - the wife of the junior British Officer described a life in the Malay States, compared to Isabella Bird's more idealized travelogue "The Golden Chersonese" (1883).
Encyclopedia Britainica Volume 14 : "The Malay Archipelago, also known as Malaysian and East Indies contain in the largest group of Island in the world consisting of more 3,000 islands of Indonesia and 7,000 islands and unnamed rocks of Philippines group. The New Guinea island is arbitrary included in the Malay Archipelago.
Ernest Fouinet: French writer and traveler who introduced Malay Pantun to French Literature in the 19th century.
Eusebio Dizon: Supports the "Theory Out of Taiwan" by Peter Bellwood and explains that the Malays left Taiwan 6,000 years ago.
Expedition Pamalayu > the expedition where the Singgahsari Empire wanted to expand and subdue the Power of the Srivijaya Empire. This prove that the name Malay and the Malay Civilization had been around a long time. Wikipedia :
Ekspedisi Pamalayu
F.de Houtman: As early as 1603 AD, he proved that Malagasy has similarities with Malay. The entire Austronesian language family is also known as the "Malay-Polynesian" family to this day.
Ferano Mendez Pinto: recorded in 1539, he stopped by Perlis. His assistant Maurice Collis has written, "We sailed two days and half with favorable wind by means we got to the river of Parles in the Kingdom of Queda… being departed from the river of Parles on a Saturday about sunset…." “anchored at the mouth of the Perleys River near Alor Setar to trade 1539”.
Ferdinand Blumentritt: a respected ethnologist who recognised Jose Rizal intellect and achievements as a symbol of the capabilities of the Malay People. He give Jose Rizal a title "Pride of the Malay Race".
Fo-Lo-An: a part of the Srivijaya Maritime empire during the 12th century. The Chinese text Lingwai Daida contains description of the Kingdom of Fo-Lo-An. Paul Wheatley believe Fo-Lo-An was in Kuala Berang, Terengganu.
Francois Valentijn (1666-1727):
- Dutch priest and historian who wrote about the history of the Malay Archipelago and the greatness of the Malay language. He placed the Malay language in the 16th century on a par with Latin and French, which were the lingua franca in Europe at that time.
- His quote in 16th Century: Their language, Malay, spoken not only in coastal areas, but also in the rest of the archipelago and in the countries of the East, as a language that is understood everywhere by everyone, just like French or Latin in Europe, or as a lingua franca in Italy and in the Levant. Really wide spread of the Malay language that is not possible if we understand we lost track, because the language is not only understood in Persia even farther from it, and just to the east up the Philippine archipelago.
- Anyone in the Eastern region, white or Asian, not understanding Malay would be considered "stupid".
Franz Bopp: coining the world Malayo-Polynesian in 1841 as the name or the Austronesian language family.
Fukami Sumio (2010): the Chinese name "Pizong" was recorded in the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 25 AD) text Hanshu.The record, which dates from after 111 BCE, is believed to refer to Pulau Pisang, an island off the coast of Modern-day Johor, Malaysia.
Funan: an ancient indianised state in Southeast Asia that existed from the 1st to th 7th century CE. Centered in the Mekong Delta region, it flourished as a powerful trading state and was a crucial hub for maritime trade between India and China.
G.E. Gerini: considers the term "Meleu-Kolon" by Ptolemy to be derived from the Sanskrit word "Malayakom" or "Malaikurram" which refers to Tanjung Kuantan.
G.K. Nieman and R.M. Clark: Mainland Asia is the ancestral homeland of the Malay race.
Gale de Giberne Sieveking: British archaelogist - in 1954 he directed a major excavatioin at Gua Cha in Ulu Kelantan. His finding included burials and artifacts, helped in the reconstruction of Malayan history. He and his wife, Ann Sieveking also carried out work at the Palaeolithic site at Kota Tampan.
Gangga Negara:
- a semi-legendary Hindu-Malay Kingdom believed to have been located on the west coast of the Malaya Peninsula, in what is now the State of Perak. In is mentioned in the Malay Annals.
- In 1936, a bronze statue of Avalokiteshvara was discovered in Bidor, Perak, provides crucial archaelogical evidence for the Hindu-Buddhist influence and possible existence of the ancient Kingdom of Gangga Negara in that area. (Jacques de Morgan, The Kingdom of Perak, 1884).
- The History of the ancient kingdoms of Beruas and Manjong is closely linked to Gangga Negara. (James Low and H.G. Quaritch Wales, 1949).
George Alfred Henty (G.A. Henty): author of a book titles "Among Malay Pirates". The story is set in the waters of the Malay Archipelago during the 19th century and follows the adventures of a young British midshipman who encounters Malay pirates.
Georges Chapoutier, Dr. : French Scientist and polymath known for his passion for and recitation of the traditional Malay Pantun. His recital of Malay Pantun was posted on the Facebook page of the French Consulate and Embassy in Kuala Lumpur in 2018.
George Murdock: A Professor from America in 1959 through his research found that some plants found in Madagascar such as Coconuts, Sweet Potatoes, Melon, Paddy and Corn are from the archipelago brought by Malay sailors.
Georges Voisset: French scholar and author - compile and translate a collection called "250 Pantoums - Le Tresor Malais". Published in 2015, this book, with the Malay title "Khazanah Melayu - 250 Pantun" is a significant work in the study and promotion of the traditional Malay poetic form.
Georgio Bucallati: in a study, it was found that cloves (cengkih) have been used in Syria since 3,700 BC.
Gerald Brousseau Gardner (1884-1964):
- A traveler who claimed to have seen Kota Gelanggi in Johor.
- The author of "Keris and Other Malay Weapons" published in 1936. It describes and classifies various weapons, with special focus on the magical and spritual of the keris.
Golden Chersonese: meaning 'Golden Peninsula', the name used for the Malay Peninsula by Greek and Roman geographers in classical antiquity, most famously in Claudius Ptolemy's 2nd century Geography. Reference : Wikipedia: Golden Chersonese.
Gorys Keraf: In his book Historical Comparative Linguistics (1984) presented Lexicostatistics Theory and Migration Theory to study the origin of the Malay language.
Gospels Hebrew King James Version: Book of Job 28:16 > "It cannot be Valued with the gold of Ophir, with the precious Onyx or the Sapphire." Mount Ophir means Gunung Ledang of today.
Graham Thurgood (Professor): in his book, he mentions the fact that Homo Sapiens existed in Southeast Asia since 22 thousand years BC, but the traces found are only dated to around 10 thousand BC.
Grahi Inscription, Thailand : found in Thailand but written in Khmer, tells about a Malay King from Dharmasraya Kingdom.
Hadrian Reland: The first Dutch scholar to assume that there were similarities between the Malay language from the Madagascar area to Java, Borneo, Maluku and as far east as 1706.
Han Cey Inscription: An Inscribed Stone in Cambodia dating from the 6th century AD, carved by Bhavavarman II, King of Chenla. There is a verse "Mala Malayu iva Malayam Raja" which means "King Mala of the Malay States".
Hendrik Kern: proposed the theory that the Malay area was in Champa, Cochin-China and Cambodia. This theory was later followed by R.O. Winstedt.
Herman Overbeck: Dutch orientalist who was active in the study of Malay literature. He produced the book "The Malay Pantun" in 1922.
Ho Lo Tan: Chinese transcription for an ancient Southeast Asian kingdom, but its exact location is debated among scholars. Chinese records show that this polity existed in the 5th century CE and sent envoys to China. The most prominent theories suggest that Ho-lo-tan was either located in the Malay Peninsula or on the island of Java.
Huayi Tongyu : Chinese - Malay dictionary published in the 9th year of Emperor Guangxu (1883 AD).
Human Genome Organisation (HUGO) : the study conducted by HUGO in 2013 showed that the ancestors of the Malay people, the Semang and Senoi, migrated to the ancient Kingdom of Champa that is now located in parts of Vietnam and Cambodia.
Ibn al-Attir: 5th and 6th century AD, Chinese traders mentioned P'o-lu perfume of Lang-ya-hsiu (Langkasuka). While in 7th century, camphor was found during Arab invasion in Ctesophon (Middle East).
Ibn Al-Faqih: in the Book of Al-Buldan:
- between the Indian Continent to the Chinese Continent (the Malay World) there are 30 Kingdoms. The smallest (poorest) King has what the Arab King has.
- The largest kingdom in that region is the Srivijaya kingdom (Al-Zabaj in Arabic.)
Ibnu Battutah: In the Book "ar-Rihlah" >
- He stopped at Pasar and found the Pasai Palace to be the greatest center of Islamic knowledge civilization at that time.
- He stopped at Kailukari on a voyage to China. The ruler of the state was a woman named Puteri Udruja who was fluent in Arabic and Turkish. Kailukari is believed by historians to be Kuala Krai in Kelantan.
- After seeing the large ships in China, Ibn Battutah stated that the Malay Jong was even larger or more impressive.
- He encountered the Malay Jong during his travels in the region. These vessels were masive trading ships central to the maritime power of Southeast Asian states like Srivijaya and Majapahit.
Ibn Kathir: In the book "Al-Kamil fil Tarikh" > The people of the Nusantara including the Malays (Bani Jawi) prayed directly with Prophet Ibrahim a.s. through his third wife named Keturah. In the Old Testament, the name Keturah, the wife of Prophet Ibrahim a.s. is mentioned.
Ibn Yusuf: In the Book "The Lost Gem" > It is possible that the name Malay comes from the word "Malai-Ur" in conjunction with the name of the Chaldean Kingdom, the place of origin of Prophet Ibrahim a.s.
Isabella Desjeux (Dr.): in 2015, she made a documentary about a Sarawakian Malay scientist named Buang bin Muhammad Ali. The discovery of Buang's greatness began when an iron box embedded in a school construction site in Ternate was discovered. The box contained Buang's notes on scientific studies.
Ismail Husein & Amat Juhari (1996): The Malays in the archipelago had their own script before the Palavi script. This script is known as Huruf Rencong or Rencung (Zain, 2000).
Issobel Dyen : "Theory Out of New Guinea" (1965) > The pioneer of the "Theory Out of New Guinea" in 1965, the theory of the origin of the Malay race from New Guinea.
Ivan Krusenstern, Captain: Russian navigator acquired a copy of "The Malay Annals" in 1798 while his ship was undergoing repairs in Malacca. He brought the manuscripts back to Russianand given to Royal Academy of Sciences in St.Petersburg. That copies is considered one of the oldest known copies of "The Malay Annals" and is currently housed in the Library of the St. Petersburg Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
J.A. Richardson : In his book "The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Neighbourhood of Raub, Pahang" > according to him in page 36 "People found that for every 'Dulang' of sand there was a handful (raub) of gold."
J.C. van Leur's: 1960: "Indonesian Trade and Society" Page 57 > The Malay language became the Lingua Franca for the Nusantara archipelago and in addition they were necessarily responsible for the efforts to spread the religion of Islam."
J.J. De Hollander: Dutch linguist who actively studied the Malay language. Famous for his works on the Malay language and grammar.
James Hornell (1865-1949): a British Mariner, his work identified significant Austronesian cultural and technological influences in South India. In his writing "The Origin and Ethnological Significance of Indian Boat Designs", Hornell highlighted several boat types in southern India that showed a clear Austronesian Heritage.
James Low (Colonel): The first person to conduct research on the Bruas Kingdom in 1849 and a century later by HG Qlaritch-Males. Both of them agreed that the Gangga Negara Kingdom existed but were unsure of its location.
James Richardson Logan (1819-1869): There are similarities between the customs of the Malays and the customs of the Nagas in Assam (in the areas of Burma and Tibet).
James T. Collin: An American Linguist > in the book "The Malay Language of the World. A Brief History." (2011) Yayasan Pustaka Obor, Indonesia > The Malay language is a derivative of the Ancient Austronesian language used in West Kalimantan since approximately 2 million years ago.
Jan Hugen Van Linschotten: The Dutch who lived in Indonesia from 1586 - 1592 recorded in his book that the Malay language was considered the most respected language among the languages of the Eastern States.
Jaroslav Seifert: Czech Nobel laureate - known to have used the pantoum form (Pantun). His work includes a collection of twelve pantoums dedicated to live titlee "Dvanact Pantoumu o lasce" (Twelve Pantoums on Love).
Joe Cribb: A British numismatist and former keeper of the British Museum's Department of Coins and Medals. He published "Magic Coins of Java, Bali and the Malay Peninsula" .
Johannes Hendrik Caspar Kern (1833-1917): Dutch physiologist who found that words found in the Nusantara Islands are also found in Madagascar, the Philippines and Taiwan. The Malay language is a parent language found in Asia.
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach: a German naturalist and anthropologist - In his study of the 5 main races of the world in 1779, it was noted that the Malay race was among the 5 main races of the world. The first to propose the concept of Malay race.
Johann Reinhold Forster (1729-1798): he noticed similarities between the languages of Polynesia and the Malay language.
John Crawfurd: quoting De Burros's notes in his book "A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian islands and Adjacent Countries." :
- When the Portuguese captured Malacca, they managed to seize up to 8,000 units of firearms.
- The origin of the languages found in the archipelago comes from the language on the island of Java.
- The Malays used the Compass before the Europeans.
- He was the key observer of Fort Canning Hill in Singapore which was known as "Bukit Larangan" to the local Malays.
John D. Baldwin: Dalam "Ancient America" (1871)
- Another hypothesis, much less improbable, though not satisfactory, is the Civilization was brought to America in ancient times by the Malays.
- The Malayan Empire was maritime and commercial, it had fleets of great ships, and there is evidence that its influence reached most of the Pacific islands.
John M. Miksic (Prof.): from the National University of Singapore (NUS) in a book titled "Singapore - The Silk Road of the Sea, 1300 - 1800." based on J. Miksic's study of 300,000 artifacts related to the Malay community. These artifacts prove that the Malay community is not lazy as some people have portrayed it, in fact the Malay race is the builder of cities and civilization.
John Tiffany: in "The Malay - A People of Fascinating Divisions" > "The inhabitants were explorers in seafaring knowledge to the point that they were given the title "The Vikings of The Orient."
John Van Wyhe & Gerrel M. Drawhorn: in an article titled "I am Ali Wallace The Malay Assistant of Alfred Russel Wallace" in JMBRAS Vo. 88 Part 1 (2015) mentions a Malay Muslim teenager named Buang (Buang bin Muhammad Ali) as an assistant to an English scientist named Alfred Russel Wallace in Sarawak.
K. Alexander Adelaar: In his 2005 publication,the linguistic evidence strongly supports the theory that the ancestors of the Malagasy people in Madagascar migrated directly from Borneo.
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri: In "The History of Srivijaya" (1940) states that 4 Classical Malay inscriptions found at Kedukan Bukit, Talang Tuwo, Karang Brahi and in Kota Kapur are
the oldest Malay language inscriptions and the oldest record of language use in the Malayo-Polynesian language family.
Kalathana: Kalathana is an ancient name referring to an ancient kingdom closely associated with the early history of Kelantan. Historical and archaeological records show that this area, now known as Kelantan, has a long history and is linked to several larger regional kingdoms.
Kantoli (Kan-tuo-li):
- The Kingdom of Kantoli (Kan-tuo-li) was an ancient kingdom in southern Sumatra, likely located between the modern-day provinces of Jambi and Palembang. It existed around the 5th century and is considered by historians to be a predecessor to the more powerful Srivijaya Empire.
- R.C. Majumdar - Kan-tuo-li represent ancient Kadara, a state in Malay Peninsula, The Indian kingdom of Kan-tuo-li had been established in Malay Peninsula by the 5th century AD and it flourished at least from 455 to 563.
- George Coedes - Kan-tuo-li mentioned in the History of Liang, it presumably preceded Srivijaya and may have had its center in Jambi.
- O.W.Wolters : Kan-tuo-li flourished as the chief trading kingdom of south-eastern Sumatra.
Keith Taylor (1976) : In his work "Madagascar in the Ancient Malayo-Polynesian Myths" which was published in "Explorations in Early Southeast Asian History: The Origins of Southeast Asian Statecraft" :
- Linguistic evidence has long pointed to a strong connection between the Malagasy and Malayo-Polynesian languages.
- Later genetic studies have confirmed a dual African and Indonesian ancenstry for the Malagasy people, supporting the theory of ancient voyages from island Southeast Asia.
King Kalakaua (Hawaii): In 1879, he authored a bill in the Hawaiian Parliament - the first democratically elected national parliament in Austronesia - to formally declare Hawai'i as an Asiatic Malay State. He went around the world in 1881 visiting Japan, Malaya, China, Singapore, Thailand and India.
Kitab Ilmu Bedil: (Book of Traditional Weaponry) > a 19th century manuscript shows that Malay artisans had codified their knowledge of traditional firearms.
- Malay gunsmithing produced a variety of sophisticated firearms and artillery before and after the arrival of Europeans.
- Portuguese account of the conquest of Malacca in 1511 describe the advanced state of local foundry work, through some firearms were also imported.
- Portuguese chroniclers, such as Alfonso de Albuquerque, were impressed by the skill of Malaccan gun founders, comparing them favorably to the renowned gunsmiths of Germany.
- Istinggar - type of matchlock firearm was developed by various ethnic groups in Maritime Southeast Asia, including the Malays. A British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, some istinggar had elaborately decorated, twisted barrels. Other Malay weapon are Lantaka and Lela.
Kolandiaponta: (Ptolemy, 100 AD) > the Greeks' title for the Malays in the book "Geographia".
Kong Yuanzhi (Prof.): from Peking University stated "The Melaka Dictionary (Manlajia Guo Yiyu) is not only the first Malay - Chinese dictionary, but also the first Malay Dictionary in the world."
Kota Gelanggi:
- The 17th century Malay literary work, Sejarah Melayu, records the existence of a city called Kota Gelanggi located at the headwaters of the Johor River.
- Belief in this "lost city" grew stronger after a research report by Raimy Che-Ross in 2004, based on ancient manuscripts once owned by Sir Stamford Raffles.
- Kota Gelanggi recorded in the Malay Chronicles is said to be in Johor, while Kota Gelanggi Cave is a physical site located in Jerantut, Pahang.
Koying: The Kingdom of Koying was one of several ancient, proto-historic polities located in southern Sumatra that predated the powerful Srivijaya Empire. Koying is known primarily through Chinese sources and is believed to have existed in the 3rd century AD.
Kubang Pasu, officially known as the Kingdom of Kubang Pasu Darul Qiyam (Malay: کرجاءن کوبڠ ڤاسو دار القيام, romanized: Kerajaan Kubang Pasu Darul Qiyam; Thai: เมืองกุปังปาสู; RTGS: Mueang Kupangpasu) was a Malay kingdom located in the northern Malay Peninsula.The state was established in 1839 as a gift to Tunku Anum of the Kedahan nobility, for his efforts in ending the conflict between Kedah and Siam in the aftermath of the Siamese invasion in 1821.The kingdom had two monarchs before it was re-integrated into Kedah in 1859.
Kunlun:
- (Malay sailor title) with the Kunlunpo gah ship recorded to have sailed and traded in Guangzhou and even as far as North and East China such as Fujian and Zhejiang as early as 300 BC.
- Kunlun (崑崙): This term had a few meanings during the Tang dynasty. It most often referred to the dark-skinned peoples of Southeast Asia and the Malay Archipelago who were known for their seafaring and shipbuilding skills. The name is also associated with the mythical Kunlun Mountains in Chinese mythology. (Google overview).
Kunlun-Nu: the famous story by Pei Xing (825-880 CE) - potrays a Malay security guard cum martial arts expert named Mo Le who is invulnerable, capable of flying and has other supernatural abilities. (Xing, Jue & Roney, 2013). This literaty piece had been a main source for other artistic pieces, and has been adopted into a movie "The Promise" (2005) with Mo Le's name change to Kunlun.
Kunlun-yu: referred by the Tang Dynasty as the Malay language.
L.C Damais: Since ancient times, the Malay language has served as the main intermediary language or Lingua Franca in Southeast Asia in general and in the archipelago in particular.
LP Briggs : The name Funan is mentioned in Chinese records around 221 AD - 280 AD and ends in 627 AD.
Laguna Copperplate Inscription: found in Laguna de Bay, Manila, Philippines in 1989 shows a date written as 822 Saka or 21 April 900 AD using ancient Malay.
Langkasuka:
- Ancient Malay Hindu-Buddhist kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula (modern day Thailand).
- The oldest kingdom in the Malay Peninsula along with Old Kedah.
- According to "Kedah Annals" the kingdom was founded and named by Merong Mahawangsa.
- The earliest description of the kingdom comes from the Chinese Liang Dynasty (502-557) record Liangshu.
- Georges Coedes placed the location of Langkasuka in the Bujang Valley, Kedah.
- H.G. Quaritch Wales, W.Linehan and Prof. Liang Liji believe that Langkasuka is in Kedah and Patani.
- Paul Wheatley, Ferrand and Braddel stated that Langkasuka was between Songkhla in Thailand and Kelantan in Malaysia.
Lembah Nenggiri: in Gua Musang, Kelantan > one of Malaysia's most important prehistoric sites.Among the artifacts discovered are over a dozen human skeletons,some believed to be up to 16,000 years old, including evidence of pre-Neolithic hoabinhian hunter-gatherer culture.
Lenggong Valley, Perak: 1.83 millions year ago > holds some of the oldest evidence of hominid habitation outside of Africa.
Liang Liji (1996): touching on the relationship between Melaka and the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century: "Relations between China and the Malay World have existed for a long time, namely before the beginning of the Christian era since the time of the Han Dynasty (140-117 BC).
Liangshu : "The Book of Liang" > Historical Records of the Liang Dynasty (502-557 AD) - the earliest record of the Langkasuka Kingdom from Chinese records.
"The kingdom of Lang-ya-shu is situated in the Southern Sea (南海)．Its frontiers are thirty days’ journey from east to west and twenty from north to south. It is twenty-four thousand li (里) distant from Canton. Its climate and products are somewhat similar to those of
Funan. Eagle-wood, Agar-wood and Barus camphor are especially abundant. It is customary for men and women to go with the upper part of the body naked, with their hair hanging disheveled down their backs, and wearing a cotton kan-man.”
London Quaterly Review volumes 86-87 (1850): states about gold in Gunung Ledang (Mount Ophir).
"In truth, as Solomon's ships, which brought back this gold, were absent so long, there seems to be good reason for believing that his Ophir may have been in the Malayan peninsula or adjacent countries, crystalline and granitic, which still furnish a considerable amount of gold"
The name Mount Ophir (Ledang Mountain) is mentioned in the King James Version of the Hebrew Bible Book of Job 28:16: "It cannot be valued with the gold of Ophir, with the precious Onyx or the Sapphire"
Luc Baudouin & Patricia Lebrun: In the paper 'Coconut (Cocos Nucifera L) DNA studies support the hypothesis of an Ancient Austronesian migration from Southeast Asia to America" > these two authors suggest that one of the main factors that allowed coconuts to reach as far as Ecuador and the Americas was that they were brought by Austronesian/Malay-Polynesian tribes from Southeast Asia about 2000 years ago.
M.W. Tweedie: in his book "Pre-History" states that those who lived in the Malay Peninsula were known as Negritos and had been there since 8000 BC.
Malagasy People: the people of Madagascar, the Malays became the ancestors of the Malagasy people, with their well-known Merina Kingdom.
Malaiyar: Chola Inscription: 11th century AD related to the Chola attack on the Malay Archipelago called Malaiyar.
Malay Ancestors: The fact that Malay Ancestors were the first people who founded the political formation or actual government in Nusantara in general and in Malaysia in specific, could be verified by the 3rd century B.C. Indian Primeval texts Ramayana and Vayu Purana which had chronicled an entity called “Malayadvipa “ in Nusantara.
Malay Archipelago: the archipelago between Mainland Southeast Asia and Australia, is also called Insulindia or the Indo-Australian Archipelago.
Malayan Brown: The term "Malayan Brown" originates from archaic and discredited racial classifications, such as those proposed by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the late 18th century. Such classifications are no longer used in scientific contexts.
Malay Kelantan: Malay Kelantan are the most likely the original Malay settled in the Peninsula over 60,000 years ago. The study of the origin of the Malas involved 10 sub-ethnic Malays in Peninsula Malaysia such the Javanese in Johor and Selangor, the Acheh in Perak, the Minang in Negeri Sembilan, the Banjar in Selangor and Johor, the Bugis in Selangor and Johor, the Rawa in Perak, the Malay Champa in Perak, Kedah and Kelantan, the Pattani in Kelantan, the Kelantan Malay and the Langkawi Malay. This study is the first in the world to identify the basic genetic of the origin of the Malays.
Malay language:
- First used in the first millenis known as Old Malay, a part of the Austronesian language family.
- The oldest form of Malay is descended from the Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by the earliest Austronesian settlers in Southeast Asia.
- The Kawi and Rencong - old Malay Scripts as mentioned by some linguistic researchers.
- Classical Malay : a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Malay Kingdoms of Southeast Asia, developed in the 15th century.
- Proto-Malayic : believed to have existed in prehistoric times, spoken by the early Austronesian settlers in the region. Spoken in Borneo at least 1000 BCE.
- 20,000 Malay manuscripts are scattered around the world.
- In Malaysia, there are only 4,884 manuscripts that have been stored and cared for. Another 15,000 manuscripts are in Russia, Germany, Algeria, the Topkapi Museum, Turkey, Britain, the Netherlands, Portugal and several other countries.
- A total of 4,600 manuscripts written in Jawi in various fields of knowledge that are part of the collection of the National Library of Malaysia have not yet been studied to this day.
- A Malay manuscript on ship design and architecture from the Malay World by Rafael Monleon (1840-1900), in Historia De La Navigacion, at the Spanish Military Museum, Barcelona.
Malayapura: Inscrited in the
Amoghapasa Inscription dated 1347 CE used by Aditywarman to refer to Dharmasraya.
Ma-la-yu: mentioned often in the Chinese historical texts during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) and Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).
Malayo-Polynesian: The Malaysia speak various dialects belonging to the
Austronesia (Malayo-Polynesian) family of language.
Malayur : inscribed in the south wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tamil Naidu, India. It described the Kingdom in Malay Peninsula that fell to the King Rajendra Chola I in the 11th century.
Manuskrip Tanjung Tanah: manuskrip Melayu tertua yang masih wujud, dipercayai berasal dari Kerajaan Melayu Dharmasraya pada abad ke-14. Ia mengandungi undang-undang yang dikeluarkan oleh Kerajaan Kerinci.
Map of Mao Kun / Wubei Zhi:
- A set of 17th-century Chinese navigation charts during the late Ming Dynasty, based on the navigational records from the voyages of Admiral Zheng He in the 15th century.
- The map is an accurately charting locations from the Coast of China, through Southeast Asia and South Asia. It even includes the name "Temasek" the ancient name for Singapore.
- the name of Kuala Pahang is mentioned in old Chinese maps as "Penghang Gang" and Tioman Island is written as "Ningma Shan".
Marco Ferrarese: Asia’s secret World Heritage site > in 2009, scientists discovered the world’s oldest ancient axe, which is about 1.5 million years old, at Bukit Bunoh, Lenggong, Perak (Ferrarese, 2016). There is a possibility that it is even 1.83 million years old.
Maritime Southeast Asia: comprises the Southeat Asian countries of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and East Timor. Refer Wikipedia :
Maritime Southeast Asia
Martianus Heraclea: Greek chronicler in the "Periplus of the Erythrean Sea." > The location of the Golden Peninsula (Tanah Melayu) is located between the continents of India and China.
Martin Richards : archeogenetics Professor from Leeds University reported an evidence in the study of DNA that rejected the theory of Malay came from Yunnan and Taiwan.
Martin Ferdanadez de Navarette : a Spanish historical figure who wrote a book in 1837, which mentions the ability of Enrique de Malacca (Commander-in-Chief) to speak the language of the Country fluently.
Martin Richards: Found DNA evidence that the spread of people in Southeast Asia thousands of years ago involved a northward movement due to a major flood phenomenon on the Sunda Continent.
Matari Singa Jaya Himat Inscription : An inscription made of copper found in Palembang, Indonesia, using rencong script and estimated to be around the 13th to 15th century.
Md. Salleh Yaapar (Prof. Dato' Seri Dr. ): Operations Coordinator, Centre for Policy Research and International Studies (CENPRIS), USM stated that Malays originate from the Malay Archipelago and are not immigrants.
Mikhail Venyukov: "An Essay on the contemporary state of British dominions in Asia." (1875) > he considered British colonial officials to be arrogant and exploitative of a nation that had once achieved greatness. Venyukov also described the Malays as being treated like inferiors and systematically humiliated by the colonialists.
Mitochondrial DNA (MtDNA): Mitochondrial DNA study > The Malays are the earliest race to still exist in the world, as early as 60,000 years ago.
Mohd Hazmi Mohd Rusli (Dr.) : "The Unsung Malay History" > “The Malays were great seafarers who once dominated most parts of Southeast Asia. For centuries, they built great kingdoms, huge monuments and pioneered maritime technologies in strengthening their grip over a huge maritime area extending from Madagascar in the West to the Indonesian islands in the East.
Mo-lo-yu: metioned by
Yijing (I-Tsing or I-Ching) a Tang Dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk who visited Southeast Asia in 688-695 AD. The Kingdom was located at a distance of 15 days sailing from Bogha (Palembang), the capital of Sribhoga (Srivijaya).
Mount Ophir: Information confirming that London Quarterly Review volumes 86-87 (1850) discuss gold in Gunung Ledang (Mount Ophir) was not found. However, other British colonial records from the same period noted the presence of gold in the Malay Peninsula and mentioned Gunung Ledang, also known as Mount Ophir to Europeans. Lord Minto's expedition in the early 19th century documented gold mining at the location, and explorer Alfred Russel Wallace visited in 1854. The European name "Mount Ophir" links the site to legends of King Solomon's mines, suggesting a historical belief in the region's gold wealth.
Mpu Prapanca : a Javanese poet from the Royal Majapahit, in his “Desawarnama” in 1365 has listed some areas identified as the land of the Malays such as Jambi, Palembang, Jakarta, Kampar, Rokan, Pane, Kampe, Aru, Mandaileng, Tumiang,Lamuri, Barus in Sumatra and Langkasuka, Kedah, Kelantan and Pahang in Malay Peninsula (Malkiel-Jirmounsky, 1939).
N.N. Miklukho-Maklai (1846-1888) : Famous Russian scholar and traveller > made his field research in the Malay Peninsula and Java in the 1870s. His diary of his first travel in Malay Peninsula was published in 1941.
Niah Caves, Sarawak: (40,000 BCE) > even earlier evidence of human habitation has been found in Niah Caves in Sarawak.
Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay: Russian scientist who visited Malaya around 1874-1875 > A lot of information he collected while in Malaya included several dialects of tribes that were said to be almost extinct and this information was published in 1941.
Nik Hassan Suhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman (Prof. Datuk Dr. ) : in UKM Archaeological Studies from 1972 - 2010 > Proving that the Malay race is the original population of Malaya for 40,000 years.
Nik Safiah Karim: The term 'Malay' refers to a Kingdom or area traced back to 100 - 150 B.C.
Nur Haslindawaty Abd Rashid: PhD Thesis (2013) > Mitochondrial DNA studies show that a number of Malays also have Mitochondrial DNA that is almost 60,000 years old.
O.W. Wolters:In "Early Indonesian Commerce: The Origin of Srivijaya" :
- The Malay Peninsula was known to the Greeks in the first century AD.
- A Greek text “Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” records that the ships that sailed to Chryse (the Malay Peninsula) and to the Ganges were known as Colandia and were very large.
- The Tambralinga kingdom once sent envoys to China around 616 AD during the Tang Dynasty.
P.Sarasin & S.Sarasin: put forward the hypothesis of the origin of the Malays from Mainland Asia or Central Asia and was supported by R.H. Geldern in 1932.
Padang Roco inscription: found in Padang Roco, Siguntur, Dharmasraya state, West Sumatra in 1911 dated 1286 AD, the term "Bhumi Malayu" refers to the island of Sumatra.
Pallava Script: a Brahmic writing system that emerged in South India during the Pallava Dynasty, from the 4th to 9th centuries CE. It is most famous for being the ancestor of nearly all modern Southeast Asian scripts.
Pan Pan:
- a small Hindu kingdom that existed on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula between 3rd and 7th centuries CE. The Pan Pan government sent envoys to China around 424-453 AD.
- According to Chinese text Jiu Tang Shu, Pan Pan was bordered in the south with Langkasuka, and in the north with Tun Sun near the Kra Isthmus.
- Jacq-Hergoualc'h, a French archaelogist speculates that the border may have been south of Nakhon Si Thammarat, possibly near Songkhla (The Malay Peninsula:Crossroads of the Maritime Silk Road, 2002).
- Hsu Yun Tsiao (1905-1981) thinks Pan Pan may be located in Pranpuri.
Pantoum: the Western poetic form, directly derived from the Malay poetic form, the Pantun. It was introduced to Europe in the 19th century and has evolved in a distinct form while retaining some of its original characteristics.
Patani:
The Kingdom of Patani, a Malay Sultanate that existed for centuries in the historical Patani region, which is now part of Southern Thailand. Known for its prosperity, strategic location and periods of female rule,Patani's history is characterised by a long-standing struggle to maintain its autonomy from the powerful Siamese kingdom to the north.
Patrick V. Kirch (2017): Hawaiian mythology mentions mysterious visitors from the west bringing plant seeds, agricultural knowledge and culture. Studies by anthropologists such as Patrick V. Kirch suggest possible links to Western Austronesian (Argentina).
Paul Adolfe Rivet, Dr. : Published the essay "Les Malayo-Polynesiens en Amerique" -
- he proposed a controversial theory suggesting a link between Malayo-Polynesian (Austronesian) languages and certain Native American language groups.
- He claimed that the Hoka tribes of North America (in Oregon, California, Arizona etc) speak "Malay" in an oversimplification or misstatement of linguistic theories.
Paul D. Buell (2009): The maritime progress experienced by the Chinese occurred after the Emperor Song appointed the Champa Malays as Maritime Officers who also became Shahbandar in Fujian.
Paul Wheatley: Book "The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500" , University of Malaya Press 1966 >
- Chinese society has established contact with the people in the Malay Archipelago as early as 221 BC.
- The name of the Old Kedah Kingdom is found in Chinese records in 638 AD. In the Notes of Ma Tuan Lin it is stated that Chia Cha (Kedah) sent his envoy to the Chinese Palace in 638 AD.
- The Greek writer named Martianus Heraclea in the "Periplus of the Outer Sea" about the position of the Golden Peninsula (Malayan Land) which is located between the Indian Continent and China.
- Abu Dulaf al-Muhalhil's notes about Kedah when he stopped in Kedah.
Pei Xing (825 - 880 C.E) : the famous story of "The Kunlun Nu" which potrays a Malay security guard cum martial arts expert named Mo Le who is invulnerable, capable of flying and has other supernatural abilities. This story has been adapted into a movie "The Promise" (2005) with Mo Le's name changed to Kunlun.
Perak Man: (11,000 BCE) > the oldest known complete human skeleton in Peninsular Malaysia, discovered in Lenggong, Perak dated back 11,000 years.
Peter Bellwood:
- "Theory out of Taiwan" (1997) in his book "The Austronesian" > The Malays migrated from Taiwan, this theory is also known as the "Express Train Theory to Polynesia".
- There was a civilization on the coast of Vietnam, namely the Sa Huynh Civilization around 1000BC to 100BC (M.A.Ishak, 2009) which was the beginning of the Malay Champa civilization.
Po-Hang: R.C. Majumdar suggested that Po-Hang might be Pahang in Malaysia.
Port Albert Maritime Museum:
- For too long, history has celebrated the maritime achievements of the West - Phoenicians, Greeks and Vikings, while the seafarers of Asia have remained in the shadows.
- Long before the Age of Exploration, before Greek triremes patrolled the Mediterranean or Viking longships raided the coasts of Europe, there were the Austronesians, the Harappans, and the early Chinese seafarers—mariners who built sophisticated vessels and mapped vast stretches of ocean with nothing but their knowledge of wind, waves, and stars
- Madagascar’s language (Malagasy) is Austronesian, not African, indicating that Austronesian sailors reached and settled the island around 500 CE—long before the Portuguese or Arabs ventured that far south.
- the Austronesians were mastering the Pacific, the Harappan civilization (Indus Valley, c. 2500–1900 BCE) was conducting maritime trade with Mesopotamia, long before the rise of Greek or Roman navies.
- The Austronesians helped establish one of the first transoceanic trade networks, sailing between Southeast Asia, Madagascar, and East Africa. This explains why banana and taro plants, native to Southeast Asia, appear in Africa by 500 CE—brought over by Austronesian traders.
- The modern world often credits Europe with discovering and connecting distant lands, but it was the forgotten seafarers of Asia who first mapped and mastered the global ocean highways.
Prester John. This king claimed to have owned 'three Indian lands'. The three Indian lands were from Malabar to Southeast Asia, from Malabar to Sind and the east coast of Africa (including Madagascar).
- the Melayu Asli - refers to Austronesian speakers who moved to mainland Asia to the Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago between 2500 to 1500 BC.
- the first group of Malay ancestors (Abdullah Hassan, 2005).
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian: language spoken by the earliest Austronesian settlers in Southeast Asia, the oldest form of Malay is decended from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian.
Ptolemy:
- The earliest record of the origin of the Malay is found in a Ptolemy's Map as early as the 1st century AD, known as Golden Chersonese, also known as Maleu-Kolon (Gerini, 1909).
- in "Geographike Sintaxis" > The term 'Meleu-kolon' is thought to come from the Sanskrit word Malayakolam or Malaikurram which refers to a place in Malaysia, namely Tanjung Kuantan.
Purana: Ancient Hindu scriptures written before the time of Gautama Buddha until 500 AD. There is the term 'Malaya Dvipa" which means "Land surrounded by water". Historians believe that Malaya Dvipa is the Island of Sumatra.
Qanturah: The Malay origin of Bani Keturah (Qanturah) is not a new claim. The source of the origin of Bani Keturah only comes from the Bible:
- Book of Genesis (25:1-6): Prophet Abraham married Keturah and was blessed with 6 children, namely Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Madyan (the mother of the Prophet Shuib a.s.), Ishbak and Shuah.
- Book of Chronicles I (1:32-33): the names of Keturah's descendants.
- The claim of Malay origin from Keturah comes from the Malay Kingdom of Champa where there is a settlement called Kauthara in Champa (Now Vietnam) in conjunction with the name Keturah. However, it cannot be proven empirically.
Quaritch Wales (Dr.): "Indian Art and Letters" vol. IX no. 1 asserts that the capital of Srivijaya was in Chaiya, the South East Coast of Thailand.
Rabbai Jacobovici: Project Genome Study > confirms Dr.'s hypothesis. Ralph Olssen on Israel DNA Variant in the Mala race.
Raktamrittika: Sanskrit for "Red Earth" - a name with several historical uses, most famously referring to an ancient Buddhist monastery in Bengal and an ancient Kingdom potentially located in the Malay Peninsula, possibility the Chi Tu Kingdom.
Ralph Olssen (Prof.): In the "Book of Mormon" it is stated that the mother of all the descendants of Manasseh was a Malay in the Malay Peninsula. Manasseh was one of the 2 sons of Prophet Joseph (peace be upon him), namely Manasseh and Ephraim.
Ramayana: In the epic Ramayana, which is believed to have been written in the first century AD, there is a mention of the place name Malaydvipa, which means Malay Island or Peninsula.
Raymond Kent: It is most likely that the Zanj Nation does exist, which is a mixture of blood between local African tribes and people from the archipelago.
Reman : the Kingdom of Reman (Rahman) was a landlocked semi-independent Malay Kingdom that existed from the early 19th century until its dissolution in 1902. It was a tributary state of Siam (Thailand).
Rencong script : is a traditional writing system that was used by various ethnic groups in South Sumatra, Indonesia. It is not a single script but a family of related Brahmic-based scripts that are collectively called Surat Ulu or "upriver scripts". It was used to write languages such as Rejang, Kerinci, and Besemah, as well as Classical Malay.
Richard Olof Winstedt (1878-1966):
- was brought by the natives to Kota Gelanggi in 1920.
- Wrote the book "The Malay Grammar" in 1913 for British officers who would be serving in Malaya. However, there were other British officers who had written guidebooks with the same function earlier. For example below, “Dictionary of the Malay Tongue” by James Howison M.D. 1801.
Robert Blust (1986) : briefed “Malay is one of the races in the family of a very broad ethnic group known as the
Malayo-Polynesian or Austronesian. Among the tribes in this family are Malay, Javanese, Bugis, Sundanese, Maori, Hawaii, Fiji and so on.
Robert Dick Read: In his book "The Phantom Voyagers", The Zanj people, often mentioned by Arab travelers in their records of East Africa, are the people of the archipelago.
Robert Heine-Geldern
- Pre-Historian and principal at the Iranian Institute and School for Asiatic Studies who discovered an old axe from Central Asia and a Dongson Drum in North Vietnam.
- With his team who mentioned that Proto-Malays migrated from the Mekong River to Malay Peninsula (Van Nguyen et al.2000).
Roland Bradell (Dato' Sir) :
- considers the term 'Meleu-kolon' mentioned by Ptolemy to refer to Tanjung Penyabung.
- He also emphasizes the importance of Funan in studies related to Srivijaya.
Rounsevelle Wildman: The famous American writer found a piece of metal on the banks of the Gemih River in 1894, which when removed was found to contain gold.
Sampugita: a later historical period within the chronicles and traditional accounts of the ancient kingdoms centered in Kelantan, in modern-day Malaysia. Rather than being a separate, distinct kingdom, the name was a designation given to a successor empire of the earlier "Tanah Sri Indah Sekebun Bunga".
Samudera Pasai: the first Islamic Kingdom in Southeast Asia in the 13th century. .
Setul Mambang Segara: The Setul Mambang Segara Kingdom was a Malay kingdom that once existed in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. The kingdom was originally part of the Kedah protectorate before being separated during the Siamese rule, which is now known as the Satun region in Southern Thailand.
Sherard Osborn : Naval officer in one of the British warship blockading Kedah in 1883, dalam "Like spaniels, the native of the whole sea-board of the Indian Peninsula lick the hand that chnatises them: not the Orang Malayau (Melayu) , and we Englishmen should be the first to honour a race who will not basely submit to abuse or tyranny." - Quedah or Stray Leaves from a Journal in Malayan waters, Longman, London, 1857.
Shintangshu / Xin Tang Shu (1044-1060): a definitive official history of the Tang Dynasty in China, written by Song Dynasty Scholars. It contain valuable information on Southeast Asia kingdoms and their relations with the Tang Empire. It mentions a place called "Louyue", which some scholars have connected to early Southeast Asian kingdoms.
Singora or Senggora: a 17th century Malay-Muslim kingdom centered in what is now the modern city of Songkhla, in Southern Thailand. Founded in 1605 by a Persian merchant named Dato Mogol, later Sultan Muzafar Shah.
Snouck Hurgronje: presented the Theory of The Greater India, describing the entire Malay thought, culture and civilization as part of the Hindu-Buddhist Indian civilization process.
Sojamerto Inscription, Central Java: contains the name of the founder of the greatest dynasty in Southeast Asia, Dapunta Sailendra, and his family name written in ancient Malay, written in Kawi, found in the Batang district, Central Java, Indonesia.
Son of the Soil:this term could be traced from The Malay Classical texts such as “Malay Annals ” (Sejarah Melayu), ‘Undang-Undang Melaka “ (1470-1750), “Hikayat Merpati Mas dan Merpati Perak “ (1883) and “Adat Raja Melayu “ 1779, MSS 1817.
Stamford Raffles: wrote in "History of Java" that in 1247 Saka year corresponding to 1325 AD, cannons were widely used in Java, especially by the Majapahit Kingdom.
Stephen Oppeneheimer :
- 1998, Santos, 2005 > The Malays are made up of a huge racial group basically based in Sundaland (Benua Sunda), normally referred to as Malay Archipelago or Southeast Asia.
- 2004: the Malays were originally from Southeast Asia. During the Ice Age, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, Borneo, Philippines were mutually joined to one another before sinking due to the end of the ice age. The result of the great flood the Malay were scattered all over the place as far as Hawaii.
Stephen Oppenheimer (Dr.): in the book "Eden in the East, The Drowned Continent to Southeast Asia." (1999):
- The ancient legend of the City of Atlantis that sank due to a great flood is the remains of the Malay Sunda Continent. (Inaccurate)
- DNA discoveries found that the society in the Malay world is the second oldest civilization in the world reaching 70,000 years after Africa. (Inaccurate)
Stewart Wavell: a British-Malayan broadcaster, explorer and writer who led expeditions in 1960s to trace ancient Malay Kingdoms and civilisations. He focused on searching for evidence of the lost civilisations of Langkasuka and Tambralinga.
Sui Dynasty :
- Regarding the Malay Kingdom named Chi Tu > the first contact made by this Malay city-state with the Chinese Kingdom of the Sui Dynasty around 581-618 AD.
- Chih Tu Guo Ji: Chinese records produced from the Sui Dynasty describe Chih Tu as part of the Kingdom of Funan.
Sultan Takdir Alisjahbana: Southern Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and Southern Philippines come from one race.
Sunda Continent: Dr Stephen Oppenheimer, Paleontologist Wilhelm G Solheim and Professor Arysio Nunes Dos Santos >
- The Malays actually come from a lost civilization called the Sunda Malay Continent or Sundanese Civilization. This nation has actually existed since 15,000 years BC based on their studies.
- The Malays are not only the core race, but it is said that the Sunda Malay Continent is also the continent of the lost civilization of Atlantis.
Sungai Mas Inscription: mentions Raktamrttika (Sanskrit) which means Red Land, which has contributed to the study of the past history of the Ch'ih Tu Kingdom.
Sung Shih: "History of the Song" (Song Dynasty), the name of the Tambralinga kingdom appears as Tan Ma Ling or Tan Mei Lieou.
Taiwan theory : (published in 1997) –
- The migration of a group of people from Southern China occurred 6,000 years ago, some moved to Taiwan (today's Taiwanese aborigines are their descendants), then to the Philippines and later to Borneo (roughly 4,500 years ago) (today's Dayak and other groups).
- These ancient people also split with some heading to Sulawesi and others progressing into Java, and Sumatra, all of which now speak languages that belong to the Austronesian Language family.
- The final migration was to the Malay Peninsula roughly 3,000 years ago. A sub-group from Borneo moved to Champa in modern-day Central and South Vietnam roughly 4,500 years ago.
- There are also traces of the Dong Son and Hoabinhian migration from Vietnam and Cambodia. All these groups share DNA and linguistic origins traceable to the island that is today Taiwan, and the ancestors of these ancient people are traceable to southern China.
Tambralinga: an ancient Indianized polity on the Malay Peninsula, believed to be modern-day Nakhon Si Thammarat in Southern Thailand.
Tan Tan:
- a small, ancient state located on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula.
- Historians and archaeologists rely on Chinese historical records for most of what is known about this and other early kingdoms in the region.
- According to Tong-Dian, Tan Tan is situated north-west of Taruma (West Java).
Tarumanagara: an ancient Indianized kingdom in western Java, in present-day Indonesia, that existed from the mid-4th century to the mid-7th century. It is considered one of the earliest recorded kingdoms in the region, with its legacy preserved through stone inscriptions and Chinese historical records.
Tatiana A. Denisova, Prof.Dr. : a Russian Scholar, has examined important ancient texts like Hikayat Raja Pasai, Sejarah Melayu, and Tuhfat al-Nafis.
Tatiana M. Kafaret (2015): found that haplogroup K-M526 is very specific to people in Austronesia and that it originated in the Malay Archipelago, before spreading in all directions.
Thanathana: one of four smaller states that, according to some historical accounts, merged in the 4th century CE to form a federation called Kalathana, centered in what is now Kelantan, Malaysia. Located in modern-day Terengganu, Thanathana was integrated into a larger regional power structure that played a significant role in early maritime Southeast Asian trade and politics.
Theory out of Nusantara : J. Crawfurd, K. Himly, SultanTakdir Alishabana & Gorys Keraf > The Malays do not come from anywhere, but originate and develop in the Nusantara.
Theory out of Sundaland: This alternative theory, most notably promoted by author Stephen Oppenheimer in his book Eden in the East, suggests that Southeast Asia was the original center for a cultural and technological "mother tongue." He argues that rising sea levels scattered these peoples, whose innovations later "fertilized" Neolithic cultures in places like China, India, and the Middle East.
Theory out of Taiwan: Peter Bellwood > based on research into Austronesian languages by American linguist Robert Blust. According to Robert Blust, Austronesian languages, including Malay - Polynesian, originated in Taiwan.
Theory out of Yunan: Henrik Kern & Robert von Heine Geldern > a group of humans originating from the Yunan region in China migrated and occupied Southeast Asia. This theory is refuted by the results of a study by UKM which confirms that the Malays are the original inhabitants of Malaya since more than 40,000 years ago.
Ting Chia Lu: mentioned by Wang Dayuan, a Chinese merchant and traveler during the Yuan Dynasty, described the Kingdom of Ting Chia Lu in his 1349 work 'Dao Yi Zhi Lue" (A Brief Account of the Islands Barbarians). This kingdom is believed to be modern-day Terengganu in Malaysia.
Tom Harrison: Curator of the Sarawak Museum, he and his wife discovered a human skull in Niah Cave, Sarawak in 1959 showing that the Malay race existed in Malaysia as early as 40,000 years ago.
Tun Sun: The Chinese encyclopedia Taiping Yulan (977–983 CE) provides important information about the ancient Kingdom of Tun Sun. Compiled during the Song dynasty, the encyclopedia included excerpts from earlier, now-lost works, making it a crucial source for historians studying the early history of Southeast Asia.
T'ung Tien: 8th century AD Chinese trader recorded that Langkasuka was located near the South Sea (South China Sea).
UNESCO: In 1972 UNESCO defined Malay as the Malay ethnic group in Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and Madagascar.
Valery Yakovlevish Bryusov : Russian poet in the "Malay Song" written in 1909 one can easily spot numerous references to islands of Malay Archipelago such as scent of Chempaka flowers, figs, bananas, pandan, coconuts, a paddy fields, tigers in the jungle and white waves in the sea.
Van Bemmelen: the first to proposed the name "Sundaland" in 1949.
Vayu Purana: a Hindu book containing 24,000 poems (hyms) to the god Vayu, written around 350 AD, supposedly mentions 'Malayadvipa' which was rich in gold. Malayadvipa is said to refer to the Malay Archipelago.
Victor Hugo : A prominent French poet and writer. He popularized Malay pantun (pantoum), which is a version of pantun in French, in the 19th century. Published his famous poetry collection "Les Orientales" in which he included translations of Malay pantun known as "Pantoum Malais".
Vladimir Braginsky, Prof. (1945-2024): orientalis dari Rusia, pakar penyelidik yang banyak melakukan kajian ke atas manuskrip-manuskrip Melayu yang terdapat di Rusia. Beliau menulis buku berjudul "The Heritage of Traditional Malay Literature" (2004) dan menterjemahkan banyak karya-karya sastera Melayu klasik.
W. Eliotscot : in his book "The Story of Atlantis and The Lost Lemuria" > Lemuria exists in the archipelago region.
W. Lloyd Warner: Western Historian > acknowledges that the Malays had already established contact with the coastal Aboriginal people of Australia in Arnhem Land and traded with them before the arrival of European colonists on the continent in the 16th century AD.
Wallace Line Theory : a biogeographical boundary that separates the fauna of Asia from that of Australasia in the Indonesian archipelago. Proposed by British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace in 1859.
Walter William Skeat : The Malay Magic, 1900 > Recorded various types of Magicians in the Malay World.
Wan Hashim Wan Teh (Datuk Dr.): The Malay race has been in the archipelago since 75,000 years BC.
Wan Mohd Dasuki Wan Hasbullah: lecturer at the Faculty of Modern Malay Language, UPM presented a working paper titled "MA 101 Kitab Tib dan Memory of the World: Heritage of Malay Rifle Science." in 2017 > The importance of Kitab Ilmu Bedil provides benefits and guidance on the knowledge of rifles in the military organizations of the Islamic civilization of Nusantara for guidance in the current military field.
Wang Ta Yuan: Chinese records from 1349 AD that mention Temasik (Singapore).
Wei Djao: in "Being Chinese - Voices from the Diaspora" (2003) > The existence of tapir shells and bones from the Malay Peninsula was found in the Tomb of Emperor Wuding during the Shang Dynasty (1328 - 1263 BC).
Wenceslao Q. Vinsons: A University of the Philippines student figure in 1932 gave a speech on his campus that he dreamed of the Union of all the Malay-Polynesian nations united in the Greater Malay Nation. He established the Pan-Malayan Union also known as Perhempoenan Orang Mellayoe in the early 1930s with exactly those goals.
Wilhelm G. Solheim, Dr. : The Nusantao Maritime Trading Network: he proposed that Austronesian people originated in island Southeast Asia, a region he termed "Nusantao", and not Taiwan as suggested by a mainstream "Out of Taiwan" model.
Wilhelm Schmidt :
Introduced the term "Austronesian" in 1906. Malay was first used in the first Millenia as Old Malay, a part of Austronesian Languange Family (Malayo-Polynesian).
Wilhelm von Humboldt: the Malay language had absorbed a significant amount of Sanskrit vocabulary.
William James Perry: in "The Children of the Sunyang" (1927) > The Malay Peninsula contains numerous remains of antiquity, not in the form of temples, but of ancient mines, the technique of which testifies to a high civilization. "
William Linehan: in a paper titled "Some Discoveries on the Tembeling", Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1928 - he noted that there were discoveries of ancient molds for making cannons on the banks of the Tembeling River, Pahang dating back as early as the 13th or 14th century.
William Marsden (1754-1836) : Malay and Polynesian, Melanesian and Micronesian languages are related languages. The first to demonstrate the deep linguistic connection between languages of Maritime Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands.
William N. Armstrong: in his book "Around the World with a King" in 1904 > in his account of the meeting between King Kalakaua of Hawaii and King Chulalongkorn of Siam in March 1881 in which Kalakaua did proudly state that Polynesians had Malay blood, and Chulalongkorn acknowledge a shared kinship.
William Solheim: in "Theory out of Island Origin" :
- Austronesian languages are native to the coastal areas of Vietnam.
- Believe that the chronology of the formation of the Proto-Austronesian race began in Champa and Peninsular Malaysia.
- Using the term "Nusantao" (People in the Islands in the Malay Archipelago), and classifying them as the original ancestors of Southeast Asians.
William von Humboldt: his research found that the Malay language (especially Javanese) had absorbed a lot of Sanskrit, which originated in India.
Xuanzang : Buddhist monk from China who recorded the name of a place called Mok-La-Yu in the middle of his journey to India.
Yingya Shenglan: a key record is the travelogue of
Ma Huan, the translator for the explorer
Zheng He. Ma Huan describes his detailed observations of the culture, customs and economic life of places he visited, including the Majapahit Empire and the Malay Peninsula.
Yunnan theory : Mekong river migration (published in 1889) – The theory of Proto-Malays originating from Yunnan is supported by R.H Geldern, J.H.C Kern, J.R Foster, J.R Logen, Slamet Muljana and Asmah Haji Omar. Other evidence that supports this theory include: stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools, the similarity of Malay customs and Assam customs.
Zafarina Zainuddin (Prof.Dr.): Mitochondrial DNA Study (2015) > Malay DNA in the Malay Archipelago is between 50,000 to 60,000 years old, 15,000 years older than the Chinese.
Zaharah Sulaiman: The Semang and Senoi indigenous people who inhabit the Sunda Continent (Southeast Asia) are the ancestors of the Proto Malay population and the Malays of today.
Zhou Qufei: Guangzhou Customs Officer in 1178 wrote in Lingwai Daida that ships from the Southern countries were like giant houses (Joseph Needham, 1971). It also contains description of the Kingdom of Fo-Lo-An believed to be Kuala Berang in Terengganu.
Zhu fan Zhi :
- 13th Century Song Dynasty work by Zhao Rukuo (1170-1231), a Custom Officer in Quanzhou, gives description of Langkasuka as Ling-ya-si-jia. The country paid tribute to a country Sanfoqi which is usually interpreted to be Srivijaya.
- It is considered the first book in Chinese history to systematically describe the Maritime Silk Road.
- The Chinese name Dan ma ling refers to the Kingdom of Tambralinga, an ancient Indianised Malay Kingdom on the Malay Peninsula.
- The name Ling ya si jia appeared in Zhu Fan Zhi, identified by historians as the ancient Kingdom of Langkasuka, the Hindu-Buddhist kingdom on the Malay Peninsula.
- The translation of Friedrich Hirth and William W.Rockhill, suggested Beranang as a possible identification for the Chinese name Fo-lo-an with a different location.
Zhu Ying and Kang Tai: Chinese emissaries sent on a diplomatic mission to the Funan Kingdom (now Cambodia and Southern Vietnam) in Southeast Asia by the state of Wu during China's Three Kingdom period in 3rd century CE. Funan is Austroasicatic groups.
Other Notes on Malay (Zulheimy Blog):
Reference :
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- Dr. Anthony Reid, 2015 : Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce.
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Hj Zulheimy Maamor
Lembah Keramat, KL
16 November 2025: 6.59 p.m
