NOTA ILMU : CIVILISATION FOR BEGINNERS

ANGLO-SAXON

• The "New English", combination of two distinct tribes:
• The Angles: came from Angeln (northern Germany/Denmark).They are the ones who gave "England" the name (Englaland = Land of the Angles).
• The Saxon: came from Lower Saxony (modern Germany). Their names in English counties today is Essex (East Saxons), Sussex (South Saxons) and Wessex (West Saxons). 

AZTEC (1325-1521)

• Dominated by Mexica people
• Empire builders, a nomadic trive from a mythicl northern land Aztlan.
• Build a great city named Tenochtitlan in 1325. 
• This empire reached its peak under Moctezuma II. 
• They built the Zoo during the time of Moctezuma I.
• The first to grew tomatoes and cocoa.
• The Empire collapsed on August 13, 1521 by Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes. 

BAVARIA

• Germanic people who appeared in the 6th century AD.
• A mix of Elbe Germans with Local Romanised population and other tribes like Alamanni, Rugians and Slavs. 
• In 555 AD, the Frankish kings installed Garibald I as the first Duke of Bavaria. 

BERBER (3000 BCE - 800 BCE)

• Indigenous inhabitants of North Africa. 
• The earliest written accountsof Berbers come from Ancient Egypt, where they were referred to as the Tehenu, Libu and Meshwesh. 
• By 946 BCE a Berber chieftain named Shoshenq I founded the 22nd Dynasty of Egypt. 
• Septimius Severus, a Berbers rose to become Roman Emperor (193-211 AD),the first African-born Roman Emperor and the founder of the Severan dynasty.
• St Augustine of Hippo : a foundational Christian Theologian of Berber descent from Roman North Africa. 
• The Berbers developed the Tifinagh Script, the world's oldest writing systems. Today it is used by the Tuareg people. 
• In 711 AD, a Berber General Tariq ibn Ziyad, from whom Gibraltar takes its name, conquered the Iberian Peninsula (Spain). 
• Dihya also known as Al-Kahina, is one of the most powerful and enigmatic figures in Berbers History. A Berber warrior queen, she became the face of indigenous resistance against the Umayyad Arab expansion. 

BURGUNDIAN

• Germanic people of the Roman imperial era who founded the Kingdom of Burgundy (now Western Switzerland and southeastern France).
• The two Kingdoms of Burgundy:
• The Rhine Kingdom (411-437 AD) - established by King Gundahar.
• The Kingdom of Sapaudia (443-534 AD)

BURMA (1044 - 1599)

• Now known as Myanmar, begin with the unification of the country under the Pagan Empire. 
• King Anawrahta Minsaw (1044-1077) founded the empire, unified the Irrawaddy Valley and introduced Theravada Buddhism as the state religion.
• The Empire collapse in 1599 after King Bayinnaung's death.  

BYZANTINE / EASTERN ROME

• Refer to: Hj Zulheimy: Eastern Rome Empire / Byzantine

CARTHAGE

• an ancient city on the outskirts of Tunis (suburb of modern-day Tunisia).
• The two lives of Carthage:
• Punic Carthage (814-146 BCE) : founded by the Phoenician Queen Dido, a maritime superpower and home of the legendary General Hannibal. 
• Roman Carthage (44 BCE - 698 CE) : Rebuilt by Julius Caesar and Augustus, became the capital of the Roman province of Africa. 

CELTICS

• Origin: Central / Western Europe. people in the Indo-European group, originating from Central Asia, namely Kazakhstan.
• People living in Britain before and during the Roman Occupation.
• Modern Wales, Scotland and Cornwall still have strong Celtic identities and languages today. 
• The celebration of Halloween is part of Celtic culture.

CHINESE

• Refer to : Hj Zulheimy : Chinese Civilisation

CRETAN CIVILISATION

• Also known as Minoan Civiliation, a Bronze Age culture that flourished on the Island of Crete (3000 BCE - 1100 BCE). 
• Considered as the "advanced" civilisation in Europe. 
• This civilisation was rediscovered in the early 1900's by the British archaeologist  Sir Arthur Evans, who named it after the legendary King Minos of Greek Mythology. 

EGYPT

• Refer: Hj Zulheimy :  Ancient Egypt Civilisation

ENGLISH/BRITISH/BRITON

• English : refers to people of England (one of the 4 countries that make up United Kingdom. You should used "English" if the person is specifically from England. Calling someone from Scotland or Wales an English is a common mistake and can be seen as offensive. 
• British: umbrella term for anyone from United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland).
• Briton: a British person

ETHIOPIA

• The name Ethiopia first appears around 1200 BC in the ancient Greek epic poem called the Iliad.
• One of the oldest continuously inhabited nations on Earth.
• The 3.2 million-year-old fossil "Lucy" (Australopithecus afarensis) was discovered in the Afar region in 1974. 
• Ancient Egyptian records from as early as 2500 BCE describe trade with a mysterious, wealthy land called Land of Punt. Many historians believe was located in present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. 
• In 4th Century CE, King Ezana converted to Christianity, making Ethiopia one of the first nations to adopt it as a state religion. 

FRANK

• The Franks - one of the Germanic barbarian tribes during the Roman Empire.
• The Franks established a lasting kingdom that became the foundation for modern-day France and Germany.
• The great Frankish dynasty was the Merovingian Dynasty, named after the semi-legendary founder Merovech.
• Clovis I (481-511) was the most pivotal figure in Frankish history.
• The name "France" is directly derived from the Franks. 
• Joan of Arc: the figure who saved France from disappearing. She was burn at the stake in Rouen on May 30, 1431 at the age 19 years old. 

FRISIANS

• A Germanic ethnic group with a history tied deeply to the North Sea Coast. Belong to the Anglo-Frisian branch of West Germanic languages. 
• The three Frisians:
• West Frisia : located in Netherlands
• East Frisia : located in the German State of Lower Saxony. 
• North Frisia : located along the west coast of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.

GERMANIC

• Ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, believe to have emerged in southern Scandinavia and Northern Germany

GOTH

• The overthrowers of the Roman Empire.
• A Germanic tribe that settled around the Danube River during the Roman Empire.
• Split into two major groups: the Visigoths (Western Goths) and the Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths). 

GREAT BRITAIN / UNITED KINGDOM / BRITISH ISLES

• Great Britain : Largest Island in the groups, which included 3 countries : England, Scotland and Wales (not included Northern Ireland). 
• United Kingdom: Official sovereign State, its full name is The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The countries in UK is England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland). In Great Britain, Northern Ireland is not included. 
• British Isles : Geographical term for the entire group of over 6,000 islands which included United Kingdom + Republic of Ireland. 

GREEKS

• The forerunners of Western culture.
• The Greeks introduced the radical idea of Democracy. 
• Among the famous Greeks were, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Hippocrates etc. 

HUNS

• A Mongolian Nomad , an European conquerors from Central Asia.
• Many historians believe the Huns were descendants of the Xiongnu, a nomadic people who lived on the borders of northern China. 
• The Huns reache the peak of their power under Attila the Hun, know to the Roman as the Flagellum Dei or "Scourge of God".
• Following Attila's sudden death in 453 CE, the empire vanished as quickly as it had appeared.

INCAS

• Builders of the richest Empire in South America. 
• The largest and arguably the most efficient civilisation in pre-Columbian America, spanning over 2,500 miles from modern-day Ecuador to Chile. 
• Built the famous Macchu Picchu and Sacsayhuaman, which still stand today. 

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

• Refer to : Hj Zulheimy : Indus Valley Civilisation.

IROQUOIS

• Also known as the Haudenosaunee (People of the longhouse), one of the most influential indigenous confederacies in North America history.
• The Six Nations: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca and Tuscarora.
• They maintain territories in New York, Oklahoma, Wisconsin, Ontario and Quebec. 

ITALIAN

• Transition from "Romans" to "Italians" wasn't a sudden event following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. 

JAPANESE

• an Asian race who live at the edge of human civilisation. 
• They are descendants of the indigenous Jomon & Yayoi. 

JUTES & FRISIAN

• The Jutes : came from Jutland Peninsula (modern Denmark), settled in Kent, the Isle of Wight and parts of Hampshire. The established the Kingdom of Kent, which was the first to convert to Christianity. 
• The Frisians: came from the coastal regions of the Netherland and Germany, and famous seafarers and merchants. 

KHAZAR

• The Turkic peoples of southeastern Western Russia in the late 6th century AD.
• Current genetic and archaelogical evidence suggests that Khazar ancestry in the Ashkenazi population is minimal to non-existent. 

KHMER

• Builders of Hindu-Buddhist temples in Southeast Asia.
• Communicate in Khmer, one of the Austroasiatic language groups.
• Khmer King Suryavarman II (1113-1150 CE) built the famous Angkor Wat. 

KOREANS

• The first Korean Kingdom, Gojoseon (Old Joseon), marks the dawn of Korean history. Founded by Dangun Wanggeom in 2333 BCE. 
• In 1897, King Gojong declared Korea an Empire to assert equal status with the Qing Dynasty and the Empire of Japan. 

MAGYARS

• A nomadic, Finno-Ugric people whose migration and subsequent raids during the 9th and 10th centuries. Founded the Kingdom of Hungary.
• Originally living in the Ural Mountains ald later the Russian steppes. 
• For over 50 years, the Magyars were the most feared raiders in Europe. 
• St. Stephen, the first King of Hungary was crowned on Chrismast Day in 1000 AD. 

MAYA

• Builders of the most advanced civilisation in Central America.
• Masters of abstract thought and large-scale engineering.
• They were also the master of Time, the calendars

MYCENAEAN

• The first advanced distinctively Greek Civilisation (1750-1050 BCE). 
• The final phase of the Bronze Age in Greece. 
• They developed the first written form of the Greek language.
• Around 1200 BCE, the civilisation began to crumble, this Bronze Age Collapse is one of the greatest mysteries.

PERSIAN

• The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550 - 330 BCE), widely recognised as the first true world empire. 
• Founded by Cyrus The Great - the first superpower to bridge the gap between East and West.
• One of the greates emperor is Darius The Great (522 -486 BCE), the Master Administrator.
• In 330 BCE, the empire was toppled by Alexander the Great. 

PHOENICIAN

• The Master Mariners and "middleman: of the ancient world. 
• Known as "purple people" they earned this nickname because of their most famous export : Tyrian Purple. 
• Their homeland was the modern-day Lebanon. 
• The most skilled shipbuilders of antiquity. 

ROMAN CIVILISATION

• Refer to : Hj Zulheimy: Roman Civilisation

SIOUX

• A large and diverse group of Native American tribes and First Nations people who historically dominated the norther Great Plains of North America. 
• Famous for their fierce resistance against the expansion of the United States in the 19th century.
• Among the famous leaders are Sitting Bull (Hunkpapa Lakota), Crazy Horse (Oglala Lakota) and Red Cloud (Oglala Lakota). 
• Among the famous battle involved the Sioux are the Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876), where Sioux and Cheyenne warriors defeated Lt.Col. George Custer. 

SLAV

• The largest ethno-linguistic group in Europe, a Russian originated from the expansion of early Slavic tribes. 
• Their homeland is in Eastern Europe, an area covers parts of modern-day Southern Belarus, Northern Ukraine and Eastern Poland.

Group	Modern Nationalities	Primary Religion (Traditional)
East Slavs	Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians	Eastern Orthodox
West Slavs	Poles, Czechs, Slovaks	Roman Catholic
South Slavs	Serbs, Croats, Bulgarians, Bosniaks, Slovenes	Mixed (Orthodox, Catholic, Muslim)

SUMERIAN

• The builders of the world's first human civilisation. 
• Emerged in the fertile valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern-day Iraq) around 4500 BCE. 
• In 3500 BCE, they developed Cuneiform - wedge-shaped writing. It gave us the Epic of Gilgamesh, the world's oldest heroic story. 
• They established the first schools, called Edubbas, to train professional scribes. 
• Sumerian King Ur-Nammu created the world's first known law code (2100 BCE). 
• The Sumerian were also the world' first documented beer drinkers. 

TURKS

• When talking "The Turks", we refers to the modern-day Turkey of the broader family of Turkic People spread across Eurasia. 
• In the 9th and 10th centuries, many Turks converted to Islam and became the elite military backbone of the Islamic Caliphates. 
• Today modern Turkic Nations includes Turkey, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan. 

VANDALS

• An East Germany people who became one of the most famous "barbarian" tribes of Late Antiquity. 
• Their name is now a synonym for "Vandalism" (pointless destruction), they were actually a highly organised group that established a sophisticated, century-long kingdom in North Africa. 

VIKING

• Refers to the seafaring people from Scandinavia (modern-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden) who made their mark on history between the late 8th and late 11th centuries. 

Google Gemini AI

17 January 2026: 9.57 a.m

DID HANG TUAH REALLY EXISTED?

Google Overview

The question of whether Hang Tuah really existed is one of the most debated topics in Southeast Asian history. While there is no definitive archaeological "smoking gun" (like a skeleton or a signed birth certificate), modern historians use a method called "triangulation" to argue for his existence through several old texts and foreign records.

Here are the primary records and perspectives on his existence:

1. Foreign Historical Records (The "External" Evidence)

Because local epics often contain supernatural elements, historians look to foreign records for objective confirmation.

• The Ryukyu Records (Rekidai Hoan): These are official diplomatic documents from the Ryukyu Kingdom (modern-day Okinawa, Japan). They record letters sent from the Sultan of Malacca in 1480 and 1481. These letters mention a high-ranking official referred to as "Loh-hsi-ma-na" (Laksamana). Some historians, like Dr. Hashim Musa, believe this figure is Hang Tuah, as the dates align with his service.
• Portuguese Accounts: In The Commentaries of the Great Afonso de Albuquerque, written after the 1511 conquest of Malacca, Albuquerque mentions an 80-year-old "Lassamane" (Laksamana) who was a "good soldier of great reputation and knowledge.
• Ming Dynasty Records (Ming Shilu): Chinese records mention Malaccan envoys and a "Laksamana" visiting the Ming court during the 15th century. One specific envoy is recorded as "Duan Ya-zhi" (interpreted by some as Tuan Haji), who fits the description of the Laksamana who traveled to Mecca.
• Vijayanegara Empire (India): Some reserachers cite carvings or records in Hampi, India as possible evidence of Hang Tuah's diplomatic travels to the Indian Subcontinent. 

2. Local Malay Manuscripts

There are two primary local sources, though they differ in their portrayal:

• Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals): Written around 1612, this is considered a more "realistic" historical chronicle. It describes Hang Tuah as a flesh-and-blood diplomat and warrior. Notably, in this version, the famous duel is between Hang Tuah and Hang Kasturi (rather than Hang Jebat).
• Hikayat Hang Tuah: This is an epic romance written later (roughly 17th or 18th century). While it contains historical geography, it adds mystical elements, such as Hang Tuah having superhuman strength and his keris (Taming Sari) having magical powers. It is recognised by UNESCO as part of the Memory of the World register. 

3. Physical Artifacts and Sites

• Taming Sari: The famous keris associated with Hang Tuah is currently part of the Perak Royal Regalia. While the weapon exists, proving it belonged specifically to a man named Hang Tuah remains difficult.
• Hang Tuah's well: located in Kampung Duyong, Melaka, where he is said to have been born. Local tradition claims the well never runs dry. 
• Mausoleum at Tanjung Kling: There is a grave in Malacca traditionally believed to be his. While a popular pilgrimage site, no DNA or archaeological testing has been conducted to verify the remains.

The Historians' Debate

• The Pro-Historical View: Many scholars argue that while the stories are exaggerated, the man was real—a high-ranking admiral and diplomat who served multiple Sultans and was famous enough to be recorded by the Japanese, Portuguese, and Chinese.
• The Mythical View: Some historians, like the late Professor Khoo Kay Kim, famously stated there is no "historical evidence" (meaning primary contemporary documents that use his actual name) to prove he existed as a single individual, suggesting he might be a composite character of several different admirals.

In summary: Most experts today lean toward the idea that Hang Tuah was a real historical figure, though his life story has been heavily layered with legend and folklore over the centuries to serve as a symbol of Malay identity.

What Alfonso de Albuequerque says about Hang Tuah?

In historical records, specifically in The Commentaries of the Great Afonso de Albuquerque, there is a description of a figure that many historians and researchers identify as the legendary warrior Hang Tuah.

While Albuquerque does not use the name "Hang Tuah" (instead referring to him by the title "Lassamane", a Portuguese transliteration of Laksamana), he provides the following observations:

Key Descriptions from Albuquerque’s Records

• A Reputable Soldier: Albuquerque described the Laksamana as a "good soldier and of good repute."
• Great Wisdom: He noted that the man possessed "great knowledge" and was highly respected.
• Advanced Age: At the time of the Portuguese conquest of Malacca in 1511, Albuquerque recorded that this figure was approximately 80 years of age.
• Encounter in Singapore (Temasek): According to the accounts, Albuquerque met the Laksamana after the fall of Malacca. The warrior was reportedly in Singapore, where he was advising merchant ships to avoid Malacca and steer toward Singapore instead to avoid the Portuguese.
• Loyalty and Service: The records suggest that despite the defeat, the Laksamana expressed a desire to remain in the region and continue his service, though there are conflicting interpretations about whether he offered to serve the Portuguese or was simply maintaining his duty to the Sultan's cause.

Historical Significance

These mentions are often cited by scholars (such as Dr. Hashim Musa and Dr. Rohaidah Kamaruddin) as primary evidence that Hang Tuah was a real historical figure rather than just a literary myth, as the Portuguese records align with the timeline and status of the Laksamana described in Malay epics like the Hikayat Hang Tuah.

MING DYNASTY RECORDS

While the Ming Dynasty's official records, specifically the Ming Shilu (Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty), do not mention the name "Hang Tuah" directly, they provide significant evidence of a high-ranking Malaccan diplomat and admiral who matches his description and actions.

Historians and researchers (such as Dr. Hashim Musa) point to several entries that likely refer to him under his titles or transliterated names.

1. The "Unnamed Laksamana"

The Ming Shilu contains over 100 references to Malacca, many of which involve tribute missions. There are records of a Laksamana (Admiral) leading these missions to the Ming court during the reign of Sultan Mansur Shah—the same Sultan Hang Tuah served.

• 1469 & 1481 Missions: Records show a Malaccan "Laksamana" (often referred to as Lassamane or Li-sha-ma-na) heading diplomatic envoys to China.
• The 1481 Letter: The Ming Shilu records a specific incident where the Malaccan Laksamana personally issued letters and complaints to the Ming Emperor regarding threats from the Kingdom of Annam (Vietnam). This level of high-stakes diplomacy aligns perfectly with Hang Tuah’s reputation as a "Raja Duta" (Royal Envoy).

2. Transliterated Names

Some scholars suggest that certain names appearing in the Chinese records are phonetically linked to Hang Tuah or his colleagues:

• Duan Ya-zhi (Tuan Haji): This name appears in the 1508 records as an envoy from Malacca. Some historians believe this refers to the Laksamana after he performed the Hajj (an event also described in the Hikayat Hang Tuah).
• Wei-zhe-ran-na: Another title/name appearing in 1469, which some interpret as a Chinese attempt to phonetically spell a Malay title or name associated with the Laksamana's office.

3. The Princess Hang Li Poh Connection

The Ming Shilu is famously silent on the existence of a "Princess Hang Li Poh." However, it does record numerous instances of the Ming Emperor sending "court maidens" or daughters of officials to foreign rulers to solidify alliances.

• Scholarly View: Historians suggest that while she may not have been a high-ranking imperial princess, the mission she was part of—and the Laksamana who escorted her—are grounded in the diplomatic reality recorded in Ming texts.

Summary of the Evidence

Source	How he is described
Ming Shilu	A high-ranking Laksamana (Admiral) and diplomat who handled sensitive relations between Malacca and China.
Hikayat Hang Tuah	Describes Hang Tuah visiting China, outwitting the Emperor's guards, and seeing the Emperor's face (which was forbidden).
Historical Alignment	The dates of the Laksamana’s visits to China (1460s–1480s) align with the peak of Hang Tuah’s career in Malay literature.

The Ming records are often used by historians to "triangulate" the existence of Hang Tuah; while they don't use his personal name, they confirm that a man of his specific rank, title, and extraordinary diplomatic skill was indeed active at that exact time.

REKIDAI HOAN

The Rekidai Hoan (Precious Documents of Successive Generations) is widely considered by modern historians to be the "smoking gun" or the most credible primary evidence for the existence of Hang Tuah as a real historical figure.

Unlike local epics, which can be romanticized, the Rekidai Hoan is a collection of official diplomatic and trade documents from the Ryukyu Kingdom (modern-day Okinawa, Japan) recorded between 1424 and 1867.

1. The Proof: The "Loh-hsi-ma-na" Letters

The most significant evidence found in these records is a series of letters exchanged between the Sultan of Malacca and the King of Ryukyu.

• The Name: The records mention a high-ranking official transliterated into Kanji as Loh-hsi-ma-na (Laksamana).
• The Role: He is described not just as a military leader, but as a sophisticated diplomat and merchant who personally handled high-level correspondence.
• The Dates: The letters are dated between 1480 and 1481 (during the reign of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah). This fits perfectly with the timeline of Hang Tuah’s career in the Sejarah Melayu.

2. Content of the Letters

Scholars like Dr. Hashim Musa and Dr. Rohaidah Kamaruddin from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) have analyzed these letters and found that:

• Personal Signature: There are at least three letters attributed to the Laksamana himself.
• A Wise Diplomat: The language used in the letters (translated from Malay to Chinese/Kanji) shows a high level of wisdom and etiquette. He discusses trade, the safety of Ryukyuan merchants in Malacca, and the exchange of gifts.
• The Tone: The letters demonstrate that the Laksamana was treated as a peer by foreign royalty, reinforcing his status as a "Raja Duta" (Royal Envoy).

3. Physical Artifact: The Ryukyu Keris

Beyond the written word, the Ryukyu connection provided a physical clue:

• A Keris Lok 9 (a nine-curved Malay dagger) was discovered at the Enkakuji Temple (near Shuri Castle) in Okinawa.
• Historically, a keris with nine curves was a prestigious gift usually reserved for royalty or high-ranking officials like the Laksamana. This matches the accounts of the Laksamana presenting gifts to the Ryukyuan King in 1480.

Why this matters

For a long time, critics argued that Hang Tuah was a myth because he wasn't mentioned by name in contemporary records. However, the Rekidai Hoan provides:

• Neutral Third-Party Verification: These are Japanese records, not Malay stories, making them less likely to be biased.
• Specific Timing: They place a powerful "Laksamana" in the exact years the Malay annals say Hang Tuah was active.
• Human Character: They portray him as a real administrator dealing with trade disputes and maritime security, rather than a mystical warrior with supernatural powers.

Summary Table

Evidence	Detail
Source	Rekidai Hoan (Okinawa, Japan)
Transliterated Name	Loh-hsi-ma-na (Laksamana)
Time Period	1480 – 1481
Nature of Evidence	Diplomatic letters and recorded trade missions

LEONARDO DA VINCI CONNECTION

The "Leonardo da Vinci connection" is one of the most intriguing and controversial theories in modern Hang Tuah research. It gained mainstream attention in 2015 following a presentation by researchers from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), specifically Dr. Rohaidah Kamaruddin and Dr. Hashim Musa.

The Core Claim

The theory suggests that Leonardo da Vinci and Hang Tuah—who were contemporaries—may have met in Europe or the Middle East between 1503 and 1506.

The researchers cited a passage from The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci where the Italian master reportedly wrote:

"I sketched a vehicle after meeting a Malaccan noble."

Key Arguments for the Connection

• Timeline Alignment: Leonardo da Vinci was born in 1452 and died in 1519. If the Portuguese records (by Albuquerque) are correct that the Laksamana was about 80 years old in 1511, then he and Leonardo lived at the exact same time.
• Diplomatic Missions: Historical accounts and the Hikayat Hang Tuah describe the Laksamana traveling extensively to Rome, Turkey (Istanbul), and India. During these missions, he sought to purchase advanced weaponry and artillery for the Malaccan Sultanate.
• Leonardo as a Military Engineer: At the time, Leonardo was not just a painter but a renowned military engineer. It is theorized that a diplomat like Hang Tuah, looking for advanced technology, might have sought out the greatest engineer in Europe.
• Technological Influence: Some researchers point to the advanced fortifications and "mobile houses" (30-wheeled vehicles) used by the Malaccan army during the 1511 Portuguese invasion as potential evidence of European or Leonardo-inspired engineering.

The "Malaccan Noble" Sketch

The UPM researchers suggested that Leonardo may have even sketched a portrait of this "Malaccan noble." While Leonardo’s notebooks are filled with "grotesque" and "oriental" sketches of various men he met in Florence and Milan, identifying one specifically as Hang Tuah remains a subject of intense debate.

Skepticism and Status of the Research

While the theory is popular in Malaysia, it is treated with caution by the wider historical community:

• Ambiguity: The phrase "Malaccan noble" in Leonardo's notes is contested. Translating Renaissance Italian and identifying specific individuals from 500-year-old sketches is notoriously difficult.
• Lack of Direct Naming: Leonardo does not use the name "Hang Tuah." Like the Portuguese and Ryukyu records, the connection relies on the individual's rank and origin rather than a specific name.
• Current Status: The UPM team indicated they intended to travel to Italy, Portugal, and Spain to verify these manuscripts in European archives. As of now, it remains a compelling hypothesis rather than a globally accepted historical fact.

Further readings:

1. History Buff : Laksamana Hang Tuah bertemu Leonardo Da Vinci?
2. Cilisos : Researchers found these letters allegedly written by Hang Tuah...So was he real?
3. Live Journal : Did Hang Tuah meet Leonardo da Vinci?
4. Wikipedia : Hang Tuah

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Google Gemini AI

14 January 2026: 8.04 p.m