COCONAGARA IN THE GOLDEN CHERSONESE

In the context of ancient Greco-Roman geography, Coconagara (also spelled Konkonagara or Cacconagara) is a toponym appearing in Claudius Ptolemy’s 2nd-century work, Geographia.

It is located in the Aurea Chersonesus (Latin for "Golden Chersonese"), which is the ancient name for the Malay Peninsula.

1. Geographical Context

Ptolemy’s Geographia was the most comprehensive map of the known world in the 2nd century. On his map of Southeast Asia (the Asiae Tabula XI), the Golden Chersonese is depicted as a long peninsula between the Gulf of the Ganges (Bay of Bengal) and the Great Gulf (Magnus Sinus).

• Placement: Coconagara is typically placed on the western coast or slightly inland within the peninsula.
• Coordinates: In Ptolemy's original grid system, it was given specific coordinates (approx. 160 degrees East, 2 degrees North in his projection), though these coordinates suffer from the standard longitudinal distortions common in ancient cartography.

2. Modern Identifications

Historians and linguists have proposed several theories regarding the modern-day location of Coconagara:

• Gangga Negara: Many scholars, including those specializing in Malay history, believe Coconagara is a Greco-Roman transliteration of Gangga Negara, an ancient Hindu-Malay kingdom. This kingdom was located in the modern-day district of Dinding and Bruas in Perak, Malaysia.
• Kuala Kangsar: Others suggest it refers to a site further north along the Perak River, such as the area around Kuala Kangsar.
• Kedah or Southern Thailand: Some interpretations place it as far north as the Muda River in Kedah or even near Krabi in Thailand, arguing that the ancient "Golden Peninsula" descriptions included these upper regions.

3. Etymology

The name is widely considered to be of Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit) origin:

• Nagara: Means "city" or "kingdom" in Sanskrit.
• Coco/Konko: Some linguists suggest this could be a corruption of Koli or Gangga, or even a hybrid of Malay and Sanskrit like kolong-kolong (referring to mines) and nagara, meaning "the country of mines"—fitting for a region famous in antiquity for its gold and tin.

Significance

Coconagara is one of the few named "cities" (civitas) or inland stations listed by Ptolemy in this region. Its inclusion suggests that by the 2nd century, there were already established trading centers on the Malay Peninsula that were well-known enough to be recorded by Roman and Greek merchants navigating the Indian Ocean trade routes.

SABANA OR SABARA

In Claudius Ptolemy’s Geographia, Sabana (or Sabara) is one of the most significant locations mentioned in the Aurea Chersonesus. While Coconagara was an inland city, Sabana was explicitly designated as an emporion—a legally recognized maritime trading hub where foreign merchants could conduct business.

Its location at the southern extremity of the peninsula has led many historians to believe it may be the earliest recorded name for Singapore or its immediate surroundings.

1. The Identification of Sabana

Because Ptolemy placed Sabana at the very "tip" of the Golden Chersonese, scholars have debated its exact modern equivalent for centuries:

• Singapore: This is the most popular theory. Sabana’s coordinates in Ptolemy's grid correspond closely to the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula. If the Aurea Chersonesus is Malaya, Sabana is functionally where Singapore sits today.
• Selangor / Klang: Some historians point to Sabak Bernam or the area around the Klang River in Malaysia, suggesting the "tip" in ancient maps was distorted and referred to a major trading port further up the west coast.
• Johor: Others suggest the Johor River estuary (specifically the Sungei Sebina), which was a major site for the later Johor Sultanate and fits the phonetic profile of "Sabana."
• Sumatra (The "Bi-Littoral" Theory): Recent research suggests Ptolemy may have viewed the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra as a single geographic corridor. In this model, Sabana is sometimes linked to Jambi or Muarasabak in Sumatra, which was a central hub for the 7th-century Melayu Kingdom.

2. Other Key Landmarks in the Region

Ptolemy’s map describes a "chain" of ports and rivers that facilitated the ancient gold and tin trade:

Name	Ancient Type	Modern Proposed Identification
Tacola	Emporion	Often identified as Trang or Phang Nga (Thailand).
Khrysoanas	River	"River of Gold." Thought to be the Perak River or the Muar River.
Palandas	River	Identified by many as the Johor River.
Attabas	River	Generally agreed to be the Pahang River on the east coast.
Maleu-kolon	Cape	"Malay Point." Possibly Tanjung Piai (the southernmost tip of mainland Asia) or Tanjung Penyabong.

3. The "Penarikan" Trade Route

One reason these ports were so famous was a unique geographic shortcut. Instead of sailing all the way around the peninsula (a dangerous trip due to pirates and weather), ancient traders used a trans-peninsular route.

They would sail up the Muar River (possibly the Khrysoanas), drag their boats across a short land gap known as the Jalan Penarikan (The "Pulling Way"), and then sail down the Pahang River (Attabas) to the South China Sea. Ports like Sabana likely served as the southern gatekeepers for this vital shortcut.

Jalan Penarikan (Malay for "The Pulling Way") is an ancient trans-peninsular portage route that allowed travelers to cross the Malay Peninsula by water, cutting through the dense interior to link the Strait of Malacca (West) with the South China Sea (East).

It is often described by historians as the "Suez Canal of the ancient Malay world," providing a vital shortcut that bypassed the dangerous, pirate-infested waters around the southern tip of the peninsula (the Singapore Strait).

1. How the Route Worked

The route relied on a unique geographical feature where two major river systems almost touch in the modern-day district of Jempol, Negeri Sembilan.

• From the West: Traders sailed up the Muar River into its tributary, the Jempol River.
• The Portage: At a specific point (near the modern town of Bahau), the Jempol River is separated from the Serting River by a narrow strip of land only about 300 to 600 meters wide.
• The "Pulling": Boats (perahus) and cargo were hauled overland across this gap—often with the help of locals, rollers, or even elephants—hence the name Penarikan.
• To the East: Once in the Serting River, travelers flowed into the Bera River, which joins the mighty Pahang River, eventually reaching the South China Sea at Pekan.

2. Historical Significance

The route has been used for over two millennia and appears in various historical contexts:

• Ancient Trade: Arab, Indian, and Chinese merchants used it to transport gold from the interior (Ulu Pahang) and forest products like resins and aromatics.
• Siam-Malacca Wars: In the 13th and 14th centuries, Siamese (Thai) forces used this route to launch inland attacks on the southern Malay states. A Siamese commander's tombstone, dated 1265, was discovered near the route.
• The Escape of Royalty: After the Portuguese conquered Malacca in 1511, the last Sultan of Malacca, Sultan Mahmud Shah, famously used the Jalan Penarikan to flee to Pahang.
• Legend and Folklore: The legendary warrior Hang Tuah is said to have used this path when he abducted Tun Teja to bring her to the Sultan.

3. The Portuguese Record

In 1613, the Portuguese cartographer Godinho de Eredia documented the route, calling it the Panarican. He claimed the journey from the mouth of the Muar to the mouth of the Pahang took only six days by river, compared to weeks or months of sailing around the peninsula depending on the monsoon winds.

Comparison: Sea vs. River Route

Feature	Sea Route (Around Singapore)	River Route (Jalan Penarikan)
Safety	High risk of piracy and storms.	Safer, inland protection.
Speed	Dependent on Monsoon winds.	Consistent (6–10 days).
Vessel Type	Large Junks/Galleons.	Small, shallow-draft perahus.
Labor	Navigational skill.	Manual labor (pulling overland).

The meeting point of the two river systems is located in the Jempol district of Negeri Sembilan, near the town of Bahau. This area is historically significant as the narrow land bridge where boats were hauled overland to transition between the western and eastern river networks.

KEY LANDMARKS OF THE PORTAGE ROUTE

1. Pertemuan Sungai Muar and Sungai Jempol

Marks the critical junction where the Muar River meets the Jempol River, representing the western gateway of the ancient portage.

• Located in Kampung Jempol, this site is accessible to visitors interested in the river's geography.
• It serves as a physical reminder of the start of the inland journey toward the east coast.

2. Bukit Penarikan : prominent landmark in Kampung Kuala Sialang that overlooks the historical portage area. 

• The site is frequently visited by those researching the trans-peninsular route.
• It provides a vantage point over theterrain where the "pulling" of boats took place between the Jempol and Serting rivers. 

3. Dataran Penarikan: a community space in Bahau that commemorates the historical and cultural imporatnce of the Jalan Penarikan. 

• Located in Taman Kepayang, it is a conveninet spot for visitors to begin exploring the local history.
• The area is often used for local gatherings and as a reference point for the portage's legacy. 

While the Jalan Penarikan route itself is an intangible piece of geographical history, several physical artifacts and archaeological sites along its path (the Muar and Pahang river systems) confirm its use over centuries.

The findings range from prehistoric stone tools to medieval tombstones, illustrating the route’s transition from a hunter-gatherer path to a strategic military and trade corridor.

1. The Siamese Commander’s Tombstone (1265 CE)
One of the most significant finds near the portage area is a tombstone dated to 1265 CE.

• Significance: It is believed to belong to a Siamese (Thai) military commander.
• Implication: This artifact suggests that the Kingdom of Siam was using the Jalan Penarikan for military expeditions into the southern peninsula long before the traditional founding date of the Malacca Sultanate (circa 1400 CE). It supports the "Siam-Malacca Wars" narrative where northern forces used the inland shortcut to bypass coastal defenses.

2. The "Hidden" Graves of the Serting River
Scattered along the banks of the Serting River (the eastern half of the portage), researchers have identified numerous ancient graves.

• Condition: Many are unmarked and heavily eroded by the river's changing course.
• Context: Local oral history suggests these were traders or travelers who died during the arduous trek. Some of these tombstones feature early Islamic or "Pasai" (Sumatran) styles, indicating the route's role in the spread of Islam.

3. Megalithic Stones (Batu Hidup)
The district of Jempol and nearby Kuala Pilah are famous for "living stones" (Batu Megalit).

• Findings: Over 3,500 megalithic stones have been documented in Negeri Sembilan.
• Archaeology: Excavations around these stones often yield porcelain shards and residual charcoal, suggesting they were sites of ancient ceremonial hymns or milestones for inland travelers.

4. Bronze Age and Iron Age Relics
Because the route connects to the gold-rich interior of Pahang, the riverbanks have yielded early metal-age artifacts:

• Dong Son Bronze Drums: Found in various locations along the peninsula's river systems, including sites near the Pahang and Muar rivers, proving that the route was part of a massive maritime-inland trade network involving Vietnam and South China.
• Iron "Tuyeres" and Slag: Evidence of ancient iron smelting has been found along the Tembeling and Pahang rivers, which were the final destinations for those traveling east via Jalan Penarikan.

5. Ceramic and Coin Deposits
As a major "highway," the riverbeds of the Muar and Pahang rivers have served as accidental time capsules:

• Chinese Porcelain: Shards from the Ming and Song Dynasties have been recovered, indicating the high volume of luxury trade moving through the interior.
• Middle Eastern Glass Beads: Similar to those found in the Bujang Valley, these beads have appeared in riverine sites, showing that the Aurea Chersonesus was globally connected via these small river "capillaries."

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Summary Table: Artifacts by Era

Artifact Type	Estimated Age	Location / Context
Megaliths	Neolithic / Metal Age	Jempol & Kuala Pilah; ritual/territorial markers.
Bronze Drums	500 BCE – 200 CE	Riverine banks; proof of regional trade.
Siamese Tombstone	1265 CE	Near Bahau; proof of military use.
Islamic Tombstones	15th – 17th Century	Serting River; travelers and early settlers.
Ming Porcelain	14th – 17th Century	Muar/Pahang Riverbeds; trade cargo.

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11 January 2026: 6.48 p.m