Abu Dulaf Mis’ar ibn Muhalhil, a 10th-century Arab-Persian traveler and poet from Bukhara, provides one of the most vivid (though historically debated) early descriptions of ancient Kedah, which he referred to as Kalah.
His accounts are primarily found in his second travelogue, Al-Risalah al-thaniyah (c. 940 CE). Here is a breakdown of his key observations and the significance of his writing:
1. Description of the City and Infrastructure
Abu Dulaf describes Kalah as a highly developed and fortified city, a stark contrast to the typical "jungle outpost" imagery of the era.
- Fortified Walls: He notes that Kalah was the only coastal port in the region protected by high walls and stone forts.
- Aesthetics: He writes of beautiful flower gardens and flowing water from natural springs within the city.
- Urban Life: He mentions a bustling society with organized markets and people who wore clean cotton clothes.
2. The Famous "Qala’i" Swords
One of the most significant parts of his account is his mention of the local industry.
- Weaponry: He describes the production of Qala’i swords, which were highly prized. He identifies them as "original Indian (Hindi) swords" forged within the city of Kalah.
- Tin Mines: Abu Dulaf explicitly mentions the presence of vast tin mines. He claims the quality of the tin (which Arabs called al-qala’i) was incomparable to any other in the world. This is a clear reference to the rich mineral deposits of the Malay Peninsula.
3. Culture and Religious Ambiguity
Abu Dulaf’s observations on the culture and religion of the people in Kalah offer a mix of insight and confusion:
- Dietary Habits: He noted that the inhabitants ate dates, bread, and wheat flour, which suggested to him a significant influence from Arab/Persian trade.
- The King’s Allegiance: He famously claimed that the King of Kalah mentioned the "Emperor of China" in his Friday sermons and prayed in the Emperor’s direction.
Note: Historians like Vladimir Minorsky suggest Abu Dulaf might have been confused; the King was likely paying homage to the Srivijayan Maharaja or simply maintaining a strong political/economic alliance with China rather than literally worshipping the Emperor.
4. Historical Authenticity
While Abu Dulaf’s accounts are invaluable, they are treated with a degree of caution by modern scholars (such as G.R. Tibbetts):
- The "Traveler's Tale" Factor: Some historians argue that Abu Dulaf might have compiled stories from other sailors rather than visiting every location himself.
- Corroboration: Despite these doubts, his descriptions of the tin mines and the city’s role as a major emporium match archaeological findings in the Bujang Valley (Kedah), where iron smelting and ancient jetties have been unearthed.
Summary Table: Abu Dulaf's Kalah
BUJANG VALLEY
Modern archaeology has provided startling corroboration for many of Abu Dulaf’s 10th-century claims, particularly regarding the industry and scale of ancient Kedah (Kalah). While some of his more "fantastical" descriptions remain unproven, recent excavations at Sungai Batu have turned his "traveler's tales" into historical reality.
1. The "Qala’i" Sword & Iron Industry
Abu Dulaf famously wrote that Kalah produced superior "Indian" swords and was a center for metallurgy.
- Archaeological Match: Excavations at the Sungai Batu site (part of the larger Bujang Valley complex) have unearthed a massive iron-smelting industry dating as far back as 788 BCE.
- The Findings: Thousands of tons of iron slag, tuyeres (clay pipes for furnaces), and ancient furnaces have been discovered. This confirms that Kedah was not just a trading post but a heavy industry hub for over a millennium, making Abu Dulaf’s 10th-century report of high-quality blade production highly plausible.
2. Infrastructure: Forts and Jetties
Abu Dulaf described Kalah as a city with "high walls," "stone forts," and "flowing springs."
- Archaeological Match: While a single massive "city wall" surrounding the entire valley hasn't been found, archaeologists have discovered sturdy river jetties made of brick and stone.
- The Findings: The remains of administrative buildings and a highly organized port layout at Sungai Batu support the idea of a sophisticated, fortified urban center. The "stone forts" he mentioned may have been the Candis (temple-shrines) or specialized brick structures used for port administration, which would have looked like fortifications to a distant traveler.
3. The Tin Trade (Al-Qala’i)
Abu Dulaf claimed the world’s best tin came from Kalah, giving rise to the Arabic term al-qala’i for tin.
- Archaeological Match: Chemical analysis of artifacts in the region confirms the extraction and use of local tin.
- The Findings: While iron is the "superstar" find at Sungai Batu, the broader Bujang Valley has yielded various metal artifacts. The presence of tin ingots in shipwrecks along the Malacca Strait corroborates Abu Dulaf’s claim that Kedah was the primary source of this metal for the Abbasid world.
4. International Cosmopolitanism
Abu Dulaf noted that the people wore cotton and had dietary habits (like eating bread) similar to Arabs.
- Archaeological Match: The valley is a "treasure chest" of global trade goods.
- The Findings: Archaeologists have found Middle Eastern glassware, Persian ceramics, and Chinese porcelain alongside Indian beads. This confirms that by the 10th century, Kedah was a truly globalized entrepôt where a traveler like Abu Dulaf would have found familiar foreign luxuries and a population deeply integrated into the maritime Silk Road.
Comparison Summary
SUNGAI BATU
The archaeological site of Sungai Batu, part of the greater Bujang Valley, has revolutionized our understanding of ancient Kedah. It proves that the "Kalah" described by Abu Dulaf was not just a myth, but the most advanced iron-production hub in Southeast Asia.
1. The Iron-Smelting Process at Sungai Batu
Archaeologists have identified that Sungai Batu utilized the bloomery method, a process that required massive amounts of local resources and sophisticated knowledge of heat management.
- Raw Materials: The site was chosen because Hematite and Magnetite (iron ores) were abundant within a 5km radius. To fuel the intense heat, they used local rubber wood and other hardwoods to produce charcoal.
- The Furnaces: Over 10 iron-smelting workshops have been excavated. The furnaces were circular, clay-lined structures with a diameter of about 1 to 2 meters. These were "domed" or shaft furnaces designed to reach temperatures high enough to separate iron from impurities (slag).
- The Tuyeres (Air Conduits): Perhaps the most significant find is the 2 million clay pipes (tuyeres) discovered at the site. These were inserted into the furnace at specific angles to pump oxygen using manual bellows, allowing the furnace to reach the extreme temperatures necessary for smelting.
- The Product: The result was "iron blooms"—spongy masses of iron. These were then reheated and hammered to remove slag, creating high-purity iron ingots. These ingots were the "raw gold" of the ancient world, exported as far as the Roman Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate to be forged into the famous swords Abu Dulaf wrote about.
2. Map & Location of the Sites
The Sungai Batu site is located in the Kuala Muda District of Kedah, specifically near the town of Merbok and Bedong.
- Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex: * Coordinates: 5.7275° N, 100.4908° E
- Context: It is situated in an oil palm estate near the Merbok-Semeling road, about 10km from Sungai Petani.
- The Bujang Valley Archaeological Museum: * Coordinates: 5.7391° N, 100.4145° E
- Distance: Located about 9km west of the Sungai Batu site at the foot of Mount Jerai. This museum houses the artifacts (swords, beads, and ingots) found during the excavations.
Visualizing the Landscape (The Ancient Harbor)
2,000 years ago, the sea level was much higher. The Sungai Batu site sat on the edge of a wide, deep river (the ancient Sungai Muda/Merbok) that flowed directly into the Strait of Malacca.
Archaeologists have found brick jetties and a ritual monument (Site SB1B) that faced Mount Jerai. This monument, a circular brick structure dating to 110 AD, is the oldest man-made structure in Southeast Asia and served as a landmark for incoming ships—exactly the "fortified coastal port" vibe Abu Dulaf later described.
Google Gemini AI
11/2/2026: 12.56 p.m
