GANGGA NAGARA

Both Colonel James Low and Horace Geoffrey (H.G.) Quaritch Wales are central figures in the historical study of the Gangga Nagara kingdom, and they did indeed agree on its existence, though they approached it from different eras.

Their work helped transition Gangga Nagara from a "semi-legendary" name found in the Malay Annals into a subject of serious archaeological investigation.

Key Contributions of the Two Researchers

Researcher	Period	Primary Contribution
Colonel James Low	1840s	Conducted the first formal research into the kingdom. He focused on the Beruas area and suggested that an ancient civilization had been centered there.
H.G. Quaritch Wales	1930s–40s	A century later, he conducted more systematic archaeological surveys. He corroborated Low’s findings and agreed that the kingdom existed between 100 and 1000 CE.

What They Agreed Upon

While neither researcher was able to pinpoint the exact, definitive site of the capital, they both concluded that:

• The Kingdom was Real: It was not merely a myth but a functioning Hindu-Malay kingdom.
• The Location: Both researchers pointed to the region of Beruas and the Dinding River (modern-day Perak) as the likely center of power.
• Indian Influence: They agreed that the kingdom was a result of early Indian cultural and trade expansion in the Malay Peninsula.

Archaeological Evidence Supporting Their Claims

Since their time, several artifacts have been discovered in the Beruas and Kinta Valley areas that lend weight to their theories:

• Buddhist Statues: Bronze Avalokitesvara statues (5th–10th century) found in Bidor and Pengkalan.
• Ceramics and Coins: Pottery from various eras and ancient tin ingots found by local villagers.
• Tombstones: Inscriptions that suggest the transition from the ancient kingdom to the later Islamic Sultanate of Beruas.

ARTIFACTS DISCOVERED

While James Low and H.G. Quaritch Wales did not always personally dig up every item, they were the first to document and validate local finds, turning scattered artifacts into a cohesive history of the Gangga Nagara and Beruas kingdoms.

Here are the specific artifacts most closely associated with their research and the region:

1. The Eight-Armed Avalokitesvara Statue (Bidor)

This is perhaps the most famous artifact linked to Gangga Nagara. It was discovered in 1936 by workers at an Anglo-Oriental tin mine in Bidor, Perak.

• Significance: H.G. Quaritch Wales analyzed this bronze statue and dated it to the 8th or 9th century.
• Details: It stands about 79 cm tall and represents a Mahayana Buddhist deity. Its presence proved that the region was a significant center for Hindu-Buddhist culture long before the arrival of Islam.

2. The Buddhagupta Inscription (Northern Frontier)

In the 1840s, Colonel James Low discovered a series of inscriptions on a granite rock in Cherok Tokun (near the border of the Gangga Nagara influence zone).

• Significance: One slab, known as the Buddhagupta Inscription, mentions a "sea captain" (Mahasavika) named Buddhagupta.
• Details: Written in Sanskrit (Pallava script), it offers a prayer for a successful voyage. This confirmed that the coastal kingdoms of the era (like Gangga Nagara and Kedah Tua) were major maritime trade hubs connecting India to the Malay Peninsula.

3. Ancient Religious Statuary

Wales and Low documented several other religious figures that suggested a "shifting capital" or multiple centers of power across Perak:

• The Jalong Statue: A 9th-century Hindu "Priest-Teacher" (Agastya) statue found in Jalong, Sungai Siput.
• Ipoh Buddha: A 6th-century bronze Buddha statue found in the Kinta Valley (Ipoh).
• Wales' Analysis: Wales used these finds to argue that Gangga Nagara wasn't just one city, but a series of settlements spanning from the coast (Beruas) to the inland tin-rich valleys.

4. Trade and Utility Artifacts (Beruas Museum)

Many items first noted by Low—and later organized in the Beruas Museum—show the kingdom's transition from a Hindu-Buddhist state to an Islamic Sultanate:

• Tin Ingots: Ancient tin "money" in the shape of animals or slabs, proving the kingdom controlled the early tin trade.
• The 128kg Cannon: Known as the Meriam Cetbang, this was found in the Beruas River. While it dates to a later period (Majapahit era), it supports Low’s theory that Beruas remained a military and trade stronghold.
• Glass Beads: Excavations in the region revealed blue glass beads. Chemical analysis suggested the cobalt used for the color may have come from as far away as Egypt, highlighting the kingdom's vast trade network.

5. Royal Gravestones (Batu Acheh)

Low was particularly interested in the physical ruins of the "Old Beruas" site. He and later researchers identified Acehnese-style gravestones (Batu Acheh) in the Beruas area.

• Significance: These tombstones (belonging to figures like Raja Malik al-Mansur) provided the physical link between the ancient "Gangga Nagara" and the later "Beruas" kingdom, showing how the population remained in the same area but changed their religion and political structure.

Most of these items, including the original Bidor Avalokitesvara, are now housed in the National Museum in Kuala Lumpur or the Beruas Museum in Perak.

CHOLA INVASION

The Chola invasion of 1025 CE was a defining moment that effectively ended the golden age of Gangga Nagara. Led by Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Dynasty (South India), this was one of the few instances in pre-modern history where an Indian power projected massive naval force across the ocean.

1. The Motive: A Trade War, Not Just Conquest

Contrary to popular belief, the Cholas weren't necessarily looking to colonize the Malay Peninsula. The invasion was primarily economic and strategic:

• Trade Monopoly: The Srivijaya Empire (which oversaw Gangga Nagara as a vassal state) controlled the Straits of Malacca. They were charging high taxes and harassing Tamil merchant guilds (Manigramam and Ainnurruvar).
• Pre-emptive Strike: Fearing a trade blockade that would cut off Chola access to Song Dynasty China, Rajendra Chola launched a "surgical strike" to dismantle Srivijaya's maritime monopoly.

2. The Campaign against Gangga Nagara

Gangga Nagara was specifically targeted because it was a key port on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula (modern-day Perak).

• The Attack: The Chola fleet used the monsoon winds to cross the Bay of Bengal. They first struck Palembang (the capital of Srivijaya) to decapitate the leadership, then moved north along the coast.
• The "Conqueror of Kedah": Rajendra Chola earned the title "Kadaram Kondan" (Conqueror of Kedah) after seizing the northern ports.9 In the process, his forces sacked Gangga Nagara.
• The Legend of Raja Suran: In the Malay Annals (Sejarah Melayu), Rajendra Chola is remembered as Raja Suran. The annals describe him attacking Gangga Nagara and defeating its ruler, Raja Ganggi Shah. Legend says the Cholas used "fire-arrows" and elephants to breach the city’s wooden fortifications.

3. Immediate Aftermath

The 1025 CE raid was devastating. While the Cholas did not stay to rule, the destruction they left behind changed the region forever:

• Political Vacuum: The central authority of Gangga Nagara collapsed. It never regained its status as a sovereign power.
• Shift to Beruas: Survivors and the local administration eventually shifted further inland or to more defensible positions, leading to the rise of the Beruas Kingdom in the following centuries.
• Cultural Imprint: The invasion actually increased Indian cultural influence in the short term. Tamil merchant guilds moved into the power vacuum, which is why we find so many Chola-style artifacts and South Indian inscriptions in Perak today.

The Fate of the King

According to the Malay Annals, after the defeat of Raja Ganggi Shah, Rajendra Chola (Raja Suran) married the king's daughter, Puteri Onang Kiu. This legendary marriage is often cited as a symbolic way the local history "reconciled" with the foreign invaders, claiming that later Malay royalty were descendants of both local and Chola bloodlines.

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13 January 2026: 5.28 p.m