NOTA ILMU : THE MALAY EMPIRE AND THE LOST MALAY KINGDOM

BARUS

• Ancient port city located on the west coast of Sumatera. 
• A Regional trade centre from around the 7th century AD, also know by other names, namely Fansur and possibly Barusai. 
• Barus is famous for its high-quality camphor (kapur barus), a prized commodity for both trade and religious ceremonies. 

CHAMPA

• A powerful Maritime Kingdomof the Austronesian Cham people that flourished for over 1,700 years ago in now central and souther Vietnam. 
• The Cham were a seafaring people of Malayo-Polynesian who migrated to mainland Southeast Asian from Borneo and other part of the Malay Archipelago. 

CHEN-LA

• A Khmer polity that existed in mainland Southeast Asia from 6th-9th century CE. 
• The successor of the Funan Kingdom,  Chen-la reached its peak power under King Isanavarman I (616-637 CE). 

CHIH-TU

• Chih-Tu means "Red Earth" in Chinese, mentioned in the history of China in the Sui Dynasty Annals in 607 CE.
• Believe to have existed from 100 BC to 6th Century AD. 
• Chih-tu (Chinese) or Raktamaritika (Sanskrit). The name "Red Earth" refers to the reddish, lateritic soil found in parts of Kelantan and southern Thailand. In Malay, the modern district of Tanah Merah in Kelantan carries this name.
• Buddhagupta Inscription: found in Seberang Perai, Penang provides a key link to the Kingdom of Chuh-Tu. 
• Liang Shu and Sui Shu: Chinese historical text from the Liang and Sui Dynasties do contain notes on Chih-Tu that describe its people as similar to the Funan. It was located in Nan Hai (South Sea). 
• Taiping Huanyu Ji: stated the distance between Chih Tu and Srivijaya was within 1,500 li. 
• Tatsuo Hoshino, in his work "The Kingdom of Red Earth (Chitu Guo)," points out that while later Chinese sources like the Jiu Tangshu (Old Tang Annals) mention Chi Tu, these references describe an older political reality that had already changed.

DHARMASRAYA

• Also known as Bhumi Malayu or Suvarnnabhumi according to Padang Roco Inscription. 
• It was a Buddhist polity centered on the Batang Hari river system in central Sumatera, in what is now Jambi and West Sumatera provinces of Indonesia. 
• In 1286, The Javanese Singhasari King Kertanegara sent a statue of Amoghapasa Lokeshvara to the ruler of Dharmasraya, Tribhuwanaraja Mauliwarmmadewa. 
• Grahi Inscription : found in Chaiya, Southern Thailand, described details of a Malay King from the Dharmasraya Kingdom. 

FOLO-AN : 

• Chinese historical text "Lingwai Daida" by Zhou Qufei, published in1178 CE, mention the Kingdom of Fo-lo-an which historian widely associate with the area of modern Kuala Berang in Terengganu.
• It is said to have existed in the Kuala Berang district, Terengganu in the 12th century AD (Paul Wheatley).

FU-KAN-TU-LU

• Ch'ien han shu (Book of Han) : Completed around 80 CE - chapter 28 describes a sea route that links to a port on the eastern side of the Malay Peninsula (Shen-li) and port on the western side (Fu-kan-tu-lu). 
• Chinese record during the time of Emperor Wu-Ti (141-87 BCE) of the Han Dynasty describing a sea route to the eastern coast of India, The text mentions both Shen-li dan Fu-kan-tu-lu on the Malay Peninsula. 
• Historians including Professor Wang Gung Wu have associated Fu-kan-tu-lu with Kedah Tua, a major ancient trading center is what is now the Bujang Valley. 

GANGGA NEGARA

• Also knows as the Kingdom of Beruas, a semi-legendary Hindu-Malay Kingdom located in Beruas, Perak. 
• According to Malay Annals, Gangga Negara was founded as early as 2nd century CE. 
• Captain James Low was among the first Westeners to conduct significant research of Gangga Negara, carried out in 1849. 
• H.G. Quaritch Wales, reviewed James Low research and agreed that Gangga Negara did exist but could not pinpoint its capital. 
• Tom Pires: a Portuguese apothecary wrote in the Suma Oriental in 1512 did mentioned Beruas (Gangga Negara) as a vibrant and active trading port in the early 16th century. 
• Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Statue found in Bidor, Perak in 1936 - supporting the existence of the ancient Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Gangga Negara. 

JOHOR-RIAU

• The Sultanate of Johor-Riau, a major Malay Kingdom that emerged in the 16th century as the successor to the Malacca Sultanate following it falls to the Portuguese in 1511.
• Founded in 1528 by Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II, the son of Sultan Mahmud Shah of Malacca. 

KAILUKARI : historically debated and likely functional location mentioned by Ibn Battuta, a 14th century Moroccan explorer. Some historian have speculated Kailukari might refer to Kuala Krai in Kelantan, given the region's historical connection to powerful female rulers, Che Siti Wan Kembang. 

KALAH / KEDAH TUA

• Ancient Hindu-Buddhist maritime trading port and kingdom located in what is now the Malaysian State of Kedah. 
• Kedah Tua was known as Kalah in Arabic, Kadaram or Kalagam in in Tamil texts, Chieh-Cha or Ka-Cha in Chinese sources. 
• Ibn Khurdadhbih (820-912 CE) : mentioned a port called Kalah as an important stopping point on the Arab-China maritime trade route (Kitab al-Masalik wa'l Mamalik) around 850 CE. 
• Al-Mas'udi: Arab Historian and geographer documented that ships from the Persian Gulf and India regularly stopped at the port of Kalah (Kedah) on the Malay Peninsula. 
• Ibnu Muhalhal (941 AD) : mentions Kalah in "Risalah" and in "Al-Risalah al-Thaniyah" provides a description of Kalah as a significant trading center. 
• Abu Zayd al-Hasan: described Kalah as a major trading hub for goods like gold, camphor, spices and tin. 
• Abu Dulaf: a 10th century geographer, described Kalah (Kedah) as a significant entrepot and various historical accounts confirm it was a trading centre for numerous goods. 
• Pattinappalai : part of the Sangam Literature (2nd-3rd century CE), mentions a place called Kalagam (or Kazhagam), which is widely identified by scholars as ancient Kedah in modern Malaysia. 
• Yijing: Refer South Kedah as Jiecha, a frequent stopover for ships on the maritime route connecting China and India. It also a stopover for the Monks traveling to and from India. Yijing confirms that by the end of 7th century, South Kedah was under control of Srivijaya Empire.
• Buddhagupta Inscription: Found in Seberang Perai dated 5th century CE - confirms Kedah's role as an international transit hub.
• Hugh Low: conducted archaelogical study in 1840 - finding Hindu and Buddhist temple ruins and inscription in the Bujang Valley area 

KANDIS

• A legendary kingdom said to be the oldest in Sumatera, Indonesia.
• Sources like the Negarakretagama, an old Javanese poem from 1365, identify Kandis as one of the territories under the Majapahit Empire. 

KOTA GELANGGI 

• Considered a lost city by some and a myth by others. 
• Dudley Francis Ameliu Hervey : British Resident of Malacca (1882-1893) claim to have sighted the Kota Gelanggi in 1881. However,there is no confirm evidence to support his claim. 
• John Anderson in his book "Mission to the East Coast of Sumatra" in 1826 did mentioned about an ancient stone city in Johor. However, it was not confirmed whether it is Kota Gelanggi. 

KOTA GRAHI

• A city-stated located on the Malay Peninsula, specifically in what is now southern Thailand. It is widely believed that Grahi is the ancent name for Chaiya, a town in Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand. 
• It existence is primarily known through a significant archaelogical artifact, the Grahi Inscription, dated 1183 CE. 

LAMURI

• A maritime kingdom in Northern Sumatera, near modern-day Banda Aceh, Indonesia.
• Existed at least the 9th century to 16th century and was a crucial trading hub between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. 
• It was mentioned by Tom Pires in the early 16th Century. 

LANGKASUKA

• Ancient Hindu-Buddhist kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula, with its territory spanning across southern Thailand. 
• Regarded as one of the earliest polities in Southeast Asia. 
• Kedah Annals : the kingdom was founded by Merong Mahawangsa. 
• Liang Dynasty Record: (502-557) -  Chinese records refer the kingdom as "Lang-ya-xiu". 
• Wang Dayuan: author of the "Daoyi Zhilue" (Description of the Barbarians of the Isles), mention a place with a name similar to "Long-ya-xi-jao" during the Yuan Dynasty. 
• H.G. Quaritch Wales, W.Linehan and Prof. Liang Liji: all contributed to the complex historical debate surrounding the location of the ancient of Langkasuka. 
• The Langkasuka kingdom is mentioned in the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, a classical Malay manuscript that recounts the history of the ancient Kedah kingdom. In the hikayat, it is narrated that Langkasuka was the first kingdom established by King Merong Mahawangsa.
• Yijing (I-Tsing) : a Buddhist monk and traveler - he did mentioned three Chinese monks who lived in Langkasuka (Lang-jia-shu) on the Malay Peninsula. 
• Liangshu: (Book of Liang), compiled during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), is a crucial source  on the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka. It refers the Kingdom as "Lang-ya-xiu".
• The kingdom of Langkasuka was mentioned in the Javanese poem Negarakretagama. 
• The work of Scholars like Paul Wheatley, Gabriel Ferrand and Roland Braddell, accepted the location of the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka is on the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula, specifically the modern-day Pattani region of southern Thailand. 
• The Wu-pei-chih nautical charts, from the Ming Dynasty, also situated "Lang-hsi-chia" to the south of Songkhla (Senggora) and north of Kelantan. 
• Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai: Langkasuka was destroyed around 1370. 
• T'ung Tien: Chinese Encyclopedia > compiled by Du You in the early 9th century AD, contains records from earlier Chinese traders and officials confirming the existence and location of the Langkasuka Kingdom. 
• The Tanjore Inscription dating from 1030 AD did mentions the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka by the name Ilangasogam, commissioned ty the Chola King, Rajendra Chola I.  
• Zhu fan zhi: the 13th century Song Dynasty work > written by Zha Rukuo (1224-1228), documents the existence of Langkasuka referring to it as Ling-ya-si-jia.  

MATARAM

• A Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th - 11th centuries. 
• Established by King Sanjaya the kingdom was ruled by the Shailendra Dynasty and later Ishana Dynasty. 

MELAKA: Refer : Hj Zulheimy Maamor : The Malacca

MUARA JAMBI

• The ancient Malayu Kingdom, flourished in what is now Jambi Province, Indonesia.
• The kingdom was a significant Buddhist center of learning and a rival to the powerful Srivijaya empire. 
• Chinese Monk Yijing visited the area in the 7th century, where he studied Sanskrit texts before traveling to India's renowned Nalanda University. 
• The site was first noted by a British Officer, S.C. Crooke in the 1820s and was later partially excavated by Dutch archaelogists. 

PAN PAN

• A small Hindu kingdom that existed on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula between 3rd-7th centuries CE. 
• Historian believed the kingdom was located in what is now modern-day Thailand and Malaysia. 
• Jiu Tang Shu: the Chinese text > suggests the kingdom was near the Kra Isthmus, bordered by Langkasuka to the south and Tun Sun to the north. 
• Western researchers like George Coedès and H.G. Quaritch Wales mentioned the Kingdom of Pan Pan. They were among the earliest European scholars to systematically study the "Indianized states" of Southeast Asia, using historical records—primarily Chinese texts—to reconstruct the region's ancient history.
• Hsu Yun Tsiao: Chinese-Singaporean historian did theorise that the Kingdom of Pan Pan was located in the vicinity of Pranburi, which is present-day Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, Thailand. 

PATTANI

• A powerful historical Malay sultanate in Southeast Asia, centered in what is now southern Thailand and northern Malaysia. 
• Pattani's peak was during the late 16th-17th centuries under the reign of four successive queens, Raja Hijau, Raja Biru, Raja Ungu and Raja Kuning. 
• Founded by Phya Tu Intira or Phya Tu Nakpa.
• According to Hikayat Patani,the kingdom of Pattani was preceded by an inland Islamic Kingdom called Kota Mahligai. 
• The 17th century Portuguese cartographer and historian, Emanual Godinho de Eredia noted that Islam was already established in Patani and Pahang by his time. 

REMAN

• A semi-independent Malay Kingdom that existed in the northern Malay Peninsula from 1810 - 1902. 
• Founded in 1810 by Tuan Tok Nik Tok Leh, a nobleman from Pattani. 
• This government was dissolved by Siam in 1902 and handed over the Reman Kingdom to the Perak State Government.

SAIBURI: The name of the Malay Kingdom given by Siam, the Malay name is Teluban or Selindung Bayu. It is said to have existed in 1816 during the separation of the Patani region into 7 small states.

SAILENDRA: 

• The name of this dynasty was found engraved on the Copper Inscription in Nalanda, India. According to Arab sources, the Sailendra Kingdom (called Zabag or Java) ruled Sribuza (Srivijaya), Kalah (Kedah) and Ramni (possibly in Sumatra).
• Known as "Kings of the Mountain," the Sailendras left a significant legacy of remarkable Mahayana Buddhist art and architecture, including the massive stupa of Borobudur, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

SENGGORA

• Also known as Singora was a short-lived but powerful Malay-Muslim port City and Kingdom in the early 17th century. 
• Located on the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula in present-day Thailand, the procursor of the modern city of Songkhla. 
• Founded in 1605 by a Persian merchant named Dato Mogol (Datuk Muzaffar). 

SETUL MAMBANG SEGARA: The Malay kingdom on the northern coast of the Malay Peninsula, formed in 1808, which is now Satun in Thailand. It was dissolved by Siam in 1916.

SINGHASRI: The Malay kingdom was founded by Ken Arok, located in East Java between 1222 and 1292. This kingdom was later replaced by the Majapahit Kingdom.

SRIVIJAYA

• A powerful Buddhist empire shose influence extended across the Malay Peninsula and much of the western Indonesia Archipelago. It was important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th to 11th century AD. 
• Existed between 671 CE - 1025 CE and later conquered by Majapahit Empire in 1293 CE. 
• The earliest reference of Srivijaya is through I-Tsing (Yijing), a Tang Dynasty monk who visited Srivijaya in 671 AD. 
• Kedukan Bukit Inscription :Dated 16 June 681 AD -  the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears. 
• Hj Zulheimy Maamor : The Srivijaya

TAN TAN :

• In the 6th and 7th centuries AD, there was a Tan-Tan Kingdom believed to be Kelantan. It is said that the Tan-Tan Kingdom once sent envoys with gifts to the Liang Dynasty government in China.
• In "The Book of Liang" - a record of the Liang Dynasty (502-557M) it is recorded that the Tan Tan Kingdom sent envoys to send letters and gifts to China.
• O.W. Wolters: This kingdom is located in the Java Islands.
• Paul Wheatley : in "The Golden Khersonese" states that the Tan Tan Kingdom is located in Besut, Terengganu.
• Tong Dian : Tang Dynasty History Book > Description of the Tan Tan Kingdom in Volume 188, Part 4).

TAMBRALINGA:

• The name Tambralinga is taken from the Grahi Inscription.
• In the Tanjore Inscription, Tambralinga is referred to as Madamalingam.
• In Malay texts, Tambralinga is known as Ligor.
• Located north of Langkasuka in the 11th-13th centuries AD and was the center of Theravada Buddhism. Its most famous king was Dharmaraja Chandrabanu (1230-1294).
• O.W. Wolters in "Early Indonesian Commerce: The Origin of Srivijaya", the Malay Peninsula was known to the Greeks in the first century AD. The Tambralinga Kingdom once sent envoys to China around 616 AD during the Tang Dynasty.
• Sung Shih (Song Dynasty) > History of the Song Kingdom, the name of the Tambralinga Kingdom appeared with the name Tan Ma Ling or Tan Mei Lieou.

TEMASEK :

• Founded by Sang Nila Utama, Temasek is Singapore today.
• Wang Ta Yuan : Chinese records in 1349 AD mention Temasik (Singapore).

TING CHIA LU: Appears in Wang-Ta-Yuan's record of Tao-I-chih-Lioh which was compiled in 1349. Probably Terengganu.

TUN SUN:

• Kra Isthmus Malay Kingdom. There is a record of the existence of this Kingdom in the Liang Dynasty.
• There is a record of the Liang Dynasty, China.
• Prof. Wang Gungwu wrote about Tun-Son @ Tun Sun @ Dun Xun. Tun-Son is recorded in Chinese records dating back to the 3rd century AD and was a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula which is now southern Thailand. Prof. Gungwu specifically mentioned that there were 10,000 people living in Tun-Son.

Reference: 

1. Paul Whetley - The Golden Khersonese (1961)
2. R.O. Winstedt - A History of Johore (1932)
3. O.W. Wolters : Early Indonesian Commerce (1967)
4. Dr. Quaritch Wales : 'Indian Act and Letters' Vol. IX No. 1
5. Gabrial Ferrand : L'Empire Sumatranais de Sriwijaya (1922).
6. Barbara & Leonard Andaya - A History of Malaysia (1982)
7. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman - Archaelogy in Malaysia (1998)
8. John N.Miksic : Ancient Southeast Asia (2016)
9. George Coedes : The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (1968).
10. Buyong Adil - Sejarah Perak (1971) / Sejarah Selangor (1971).
11. Al-Mas'udi : Muruj adh-Dhahab - abad ke-10 (terjemahan)
12. Nasha Rodziadi Khaw : Sungai Batu: Tapak Arkeologi Terpenting di Asia Tenggara, USM Press, 2017.
13. Stephen Chia : The Bujang Valley and Early Civilisation in Southeast Asia" - Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 2012.
14. Mokhtar Saidin : Pusat Penyelidikan Arkeologi Global, USM. 
15. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi - Arkeologi dan Sejarah Kesultanan Johor Lama (1990).
16. Suzuki Takashi: "History of Srivijaya" .
17. Inskripsi Kedukan Bukit (583M).
18. FB - Kota Melayu yang hilang
19. Zulheimy Maamor : Nota Alam Melayu: Kerajaan-Kerajaan Melayu Terawal.
20. Zulheimy Maamor: Nota: Arkeologi di Malaysia. Penemuan Artifak, Prasasti, Candi-Candi dsb.

Updated:

Hj Zulheimy Maamor

Lembah Keramat, KL

4 Disember 2025: 6.33 a.m