Saturday 20 July 2024

Di manakah kedudukan Chìtǔ atau Kerajaan Tanah Merah?

Posted by: Nizam Ali
PERISTIWA N' SEJARAH

赤土 Chìtǔ atau ada yang menyebutnya sebagai Chih Tu merupakan kerajaan kuno yang terletak ke utara Kelantan dan ke selatan Langkasuka. Chìtǔ hilang dalam rekod Dinasti Tang sekitar pertengahan abad ke 7 dan dipercayai ditawan oleh Langkasuka.
Dalam artikel ini memfokuskan kedudukan Chìtǔ berdasarkan dari catatan 隋书 Suí shū iaitu buku sejarah Dinasti Sui (581 - 619) dan 通典 Tōng diǎn yang dikarang oleh 杜佑 Dùyòu semasa Dinasti Tang.
Dalam 隋书 Suí shū bagi bab yang mengisahkan 赤土传 Chìtǔ chuán iaitu Biografi Chìtǔ menyebut, "赤土國,隋時通焉,扶南之別種也". Negara Chìtǔ telah ada perhubungan dengan Dinasti Sui. Bangsanya adalah berlainan dengan bangsa Funan.
Yang dimaksudkan berlainan dengan bangsa Funan ialah kerana kebanyakan negara-negara yang didirikan di Teluk Siam ketika itu adalah dari orang-orang Khmer yang menjadi penduduk bagi negara Funan. Begitu juga dicatatkan penduduk asal Langkasuka adalah dari orang-orang Khmer. Dengan catatan Suí shū jelas menerangkan yang orang-orang Chìtǔ adalah terdiri daripada orang-orang Melayu atau dari kelompok orang-orang Austronesia.
所都土色多赤,因以為號. 東波羅剌國,西婆羅娑國,南訶羅旦國. Ibu kotanya banyak tanah yang berwarna merah maka nama negara diambil sempena tanah yang merah. Di sebelah timurnya ialah negara 波羅剌 Bō luó lá, sebelah barat ialah negara 婆羅娑 Póluó suō dan di selatan ialah negara 訶羅旦 Hē luó dàn.
Dipercayai Tanah Merah, Kelantan adalah ibu kota negara Chìtǔ atau kerajaan Tanah Merah yang diambil sempena warna tanahnya yang berwarna merah. Huruf 赤 chì (dibunyikan che) bermakna merah dan 土 tǔ bermakna tanah. Jadi 赤土 chìtǔ ialah tanah merah.
Dalam satu kajian yang dilakukan oleh seorang ahli mineralogi di Australia di mana emas banyak dilombong di situ mengatakan di tempat sisa mineral seperti emas dan sebatian logam lain akan membuatkan tanah menjadi keperangan disebabkan proses oksidasi yang seakan-akan warna merah.
Namun setelah berlaku hakisan dan banjir sejak ribuan tahun dahulu maka tiada lagi kesan tanah merah tetapi Tanah Merah tetap menjadi pengeluar emas utama di Kelantan sehingga ke hari ini.
Yang disebut ke timur Chìtǔ ialah negara 波羅剌 Bō luó lá dipercayai merujuk kepada Pulau Borneo kerana dalam bahasa Cina, Borneo disebut 婆羅洲 Póluó zhōu. Ini kerana ke timur Chìtǔ ialah Laut China Selatan, melainkan ke tenggara atau south east ialah Pulau Borneo yang besar.
Di sebelah baratnya ialah negara 婆羅娑 Póluó suō. Secara umumnya orang akan membacakan huruf 娑 suō sebagai "sha" berdasarkan huruf-huruf lain yang hampir sama iaitu 鯊 shā dan 裟 shā. Kerana ketika itu belum wujud lagi sistem pengejaan yang standard seperti sekarang dan belum wujud kamus yang boleh dirujuk. Sistem pengejaan moden yang standard bagi huruf-huruf Cina dimulai sekitar tahun 1950an. Dipercayai sebutan yang ingin dinyatakan sebagai "póluó shā".
Sebutan "póluó shā" adalah mirip kepada 哥罗富沙 Gē luō fù shā iaitu salah satu nama Kedah Tua dalam catatan China. Nama lain bagi Kedah Tua dalam catatan Dinasti Tang dan Sung ialah 哥罗 Gē luō (dibunyikan ke luo) atau 古罗 Gǔ luó (dibunyikan ku luo) Setengah ahli sejarah pula mentafsirkan 婆羅娑 Póluó suō sebagai 婆鲁师 Pó lǔ shī yakni Barus di utara Sumatera. Jika dilihat secara realiti kedudukan pada peta, diyakini Póluó shā adalah merujuk kepada Kedah Tua yang bersempadan dengan Chìtǔ.
Di sebelah selatan ialah 訶羅旦 Hē luó dàn (Heluotan). Kebanyakan ahli-ahli sejarah bersetuju bahawa Heluotan ialah 丹丹 Dān dān (Tantan) iaitu Kelantan. Namun dipercayai sempadan selatan Chìtǔ termasuklah lembangan Sungai Kelantan sekarang.
Kedudukan Chìtǔ yang lebih jelas direkodkan oleh 常骏 Cháng jùn, utusan Maharaja 隋炀 Suí yáng yang melawat Chìtǔ di tahun 607.
又南行,至師子石,自是島嶼連接。又行二三日,西望見狼牙須國之山,於是南達雞籠島,至於赤土之界.
Belayar lagi ke selatan sampai ke batu singa, ia adalah sekumpulan pulau-pulau yang bersambungan. Kemudian belayar lagi selama 2 - 3 hari nampaklah pada pandangan mata gunung negara Langkasuka di bahagan barat. Di selatannya maka sampailah ke Pulau Jilong, ia adalah sempadan Chìtǔ.
Batu singa dipercayai ialah pulau-pulau Koh Samui dan belayar lagi 2 - 3 hari boleh nampak gunung negara Langkasuka di sebelah barat bermakna ketika itu mereka berada di sekitar Nakhon Si Thammarat.
Fakta ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa Langkasuka berada ke utara Chìtǔ dengan sekitar Pulau Jilong sebagai sempadan. Tidak dapat dipastikan di manakah kedudukan sebenarnya Pulau Jilong namun dipercayai merujuk kepada tempat bernama Talumphuk sekarang di mana ia adalah satu tanjung kecil yang terhadang dari ombak besar dan tentunya menjadi tempat persinggahan kapal-kapal sebelum meneruskan perjalanan ke selatan.
Berdasarkan Google Map antara Pulau Jilong dengan tanjung yang mengunjur ke laut telah bersambungan antara kedua-duanya sekarang. Dipercayai dahulunya ia tidak bersambungan dan digunakan sebagai laluan perkapalan untuk ke selatan.
其王遣婆羅門鳩摩羅以舶三十艘來迎,吹蠡擊鼓,以樂隋使,進金鎖以纜駿船。月餘,至其都.
Rajanya menghantar pendeta Brahmin bersama 30 buah kapal untuk menyambut
Cháng jùn. Meniupkan serunai dan dipalukan gendang untuk meraikan utusan Dinasti Sui. Dimasukkan kunci emas dan disambungkan tali kepada kapal Cháng jùn. Lebih sebulan barulah sampai ke ibu kota.
Persoalannya mengapa disambut dengan 30 buah kapal? Dipercayai apabila kapal Cháng jùn sampai ke Kuala Sungai Kelantan hendak mudik ke ibu kota di Tanah Merah maka perlu ditarik oleh kapal-kapal penarik yang berjumlah 30 buah. Ini kerana kapal Cháng jùn tidak lagi boleh menggunakan layar untuk memudiki Sungai Kelantan dengan arus air yang deras.
Kekayaan kerajaan Chìtǔ terserlah sehingga kunci pengikat kapal pun diperbuat daripada emas. Dengan kemasyhuran kerajaan Chìtǔ sehingga Dinasti Sui menghantar utusannya ke Chìtǔ. Sebagai rujukan, Ptolemy seorang ahli matematik dan falsafah Greek yang menulis buku "Geography" telah menyebut Semenanjung Emas dipercayai merujuk kepada penghasilan emas di Chìtǔ. Menurut dapatan arkeologi telah menjumpai serpihan tembikar era Greek di pelabuhan Funan. Bermakna Chìtǔ adalah dalam laluan kapal-kapal Greek untuk berdagang ke China.
Dalam 通典 Tōng diǎn menyebut ibu kota Chìtǔ, 僧祇城亦曰獅子城. Kota Sēng qí juga disebut Kota Singa. Ramai ahli sejarah mengatakan Sēng qí terletak di Songkhla atau dalam tulisan Sanskrit ialah Singgora yang bermaksud singa. Namun fakta yang lebih kukuh menyebut kapal Cháng jùn perlu memudiki sungai selama sebulan baru sampai ke ibu kotanya.
Melihatkan kepada bentuk geografi, Songkla terletak di tepi laut tetapi kedudukan Tanah Merah ialah hampir satu pertiga daripada panjang Sungai Kelantan. Maka dengan itu Sēng qí atau Kota Singa adalah merujuk kepada Tanah Merah.
Selepas abad ke 7 Chìtǔ hilang dari rekod China kerana ditawan oleh Langkasuka sehinggalah Langkasuka menjadi negara naungan Srivijaya. Setelah kejatuhan Srivijaya barulah terbentuk kerajaan Ligor, Singgora dan Pattani. Sesungguhnya Ligor, Singgora dan Pattani adalah legasi negara Chìtǔ.
Ditulis oleh:
Megat Hisemudin Megat Kasim

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20 July 2024 > 15 Muharram 1446H: 9.41 p.m

Thursday 11 July 2024

THE AUSTRONESIAN LANGUAGE

RESOURCE:     SEA HERITAGE AND HISTORY

The Austronesian languages are a language family widely spoken throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, parts of Mainland Southeast Asia, Madagascar, the islands of the Pacific Ocean and Taiwan (by Taiwanese indigenous peoples). They are spoken by about 386 million people (4.9% of the world population). This makes it the fifth-largest language family by number of speakers.
Indonesian is spoken by around 200 million people. This makes it the eleventh most-spoken language in the world. Indonesian is the national language that has succeeded in uniting 1700 different ethnicities who speak 715 different languages ​​in the modern-day Indonesia. Indonesian has gone through a very long evolutionary process from the ancient form of Malay in the seventh century until it was officially ratified & born at the second Youth Pledge Congress in 1928 as the unified language of Indonesia, even 17 years before the modern Indonesian state achieved its sovereignty as an independent country.
Modern people today may think that the Malay language comes from the modern country of Malaysia, but based on historical facts & evidence it is not like that. The Kedukan Bukit inscription, which is the oldest specimen of Malay in the world, was found in Palembang, the ancient capital of Sriwijaya which is located in what is now modern Indonesia. It turns out that the island of Java & the island of Luzon in the Philippines also have ancient Malay inscriptions, namely the Sojomerto & Laguna Cooperplate Inscriptions with mixed of Tagalog & Old Javanese words. Meanwhile, no ancient Malay language inscriptions were found on the peninsula, which is currently the political territory of the modern state of Malaysia.
Ancient form of old Malay then evolved into classical Malay as the influence of Islam began to spread to the archipelago. The Tanjung Tanah manuscript, which is the oldest Malay language manuscript in the world, discovered in Jambi (Indonesia), is evidence of the transition from ancient Malay to classical Malay at the end of the ancient Malay period which was heavily influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism. Meanwhile, the modern state of Malaysia was only born in 1963 as a Federation initiated by the British by combining Sabah & Sarawak with the states in peninsula. Malaysia officially used Bahasa Melayu in 1986 in the Malaysian Federation constitution article 152. This law replaced the previous term, namely Bahasa Malaysia into bahasa Melayu. Malaysia, a new country that was born in 1963, only used Malay as their official national language in 1982, 52 years of late than Indonesia, which had proclaimed its national language as Indonesian in the 1928 Youth Pledge.
ASEAN - SEA Heritage & History
📖
Robert Blust (2016). History of the Austronesian Languages. University of Hawaii at Manoa.
📖
George Coedes, "Les inscriptions malaises de Çrivijaya", BEFEO tome 30(1): 29-80, 1930.
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Kozok, U., (2004), The Tanjung Tanah code of law: The oldest extant Malay manuscript, Cambridge: St Catharine's College and the University Press.
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Postma, Antoon (April–June 1992). "The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary". Philippine Studies. Ateneo de Manila University. 40 (2): 182–203. JSTOR 42633308
📖
Thurgood, Graham (1999), From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change, University of Hawaii press, ISBN 978-082-4831-89-9

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11 July 2024 > 5 Muharram 1446H: 1.26 p.m

MOUNT OPHIR

Posted by : Zul Maamor on FB
5 January 2019

Pernahkah dengar nama Mount Ophir....??
Cuba pergi ke Google Maps dan taip Mount Ophir.... ianya adalah Gunung Ledang, di Johor.
Mount Ophir dalam Wikipedia:
Mount Ophir (Malay: Gunung Ledang) is a mountain in the Gunung Ledang National Park located in Tangkak District, Johor, Malaysia. The summit is located between the border of Muar and Melaka. Standing at 1,276 m (4,186 ft),[1] it is the 64th highest mountain in Malaysia.
There are a few popular opinions regarding the origin of the mountain's name. According to one opinion, ancient history points to the mountain being the site of rich gold deposits, luring traders from as far as Greece and China. Ophir was a biblical-era land rich with natural resources mentioned in the Torah, also known at the Hebrew Bible.
In the 14th Century, the Chinese seafarers plying the Straits of Malacca called it Kim Sua meaning the 'golden mountain', possibly from the Hokkien or Taiwanese words: kim, or in characters 金 meaning gold and sua, or 山 meaning mountain
Another source said that the Javanese during the period of the Majapahit empire named the mountain Gunong Ledang, which means 'lofty mountain', from Archaic Javanese word ledang meaning 'show-off'.[2]
It has been called "Ophir" by British cartographers since at least 1801, based on a map from that year. The name Ophir itself is thought to have originated from any of these languages:
Mount Ophir dalam Wikipedia:
In the Bible 1 King 11 New International Version:
11 (Hiram’s ships brought gold from Ophir; and from there they brought great cargoes of almugwood[c] and precious stones. 12 The king used the almugwood to make supports[d] for the temple of the Lord and for the royal palace, and to make harps and lyres for the musicians. So much almugwood has never been imported or seen since that day.)
*** apakah Ophir yang dimaksudkan dalam bible itu Mount Ophir... Wallahualam.... Hanya DIA yang MAHA MENGETAHUI....
Malah pemikir purba Yunani, Ptolemy yang diakui sejarahwan Barat sebagai salah seorang ahli falak dan pelukis peta (cartographer) teragung dahulukala pernah melukis sebuah peta purba yang agak lengkap tentang Golden Chersonese iaitu Semenanjung Tanah Melayu lebih 2,000 tahun lalu? Bagaimanakah orang Eropah zaman itu boleh mengenali Semenanjung sebagai bumi kaya-raya penuh emas malah menyatakan Mount Ophir atau Gunung Ledang sebagai sebuah lokasi utama Solomon’s Treasure, harta peninggalan Nabi Sulaiman?.. Wallahualam

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11 July 2024 : 5 Muharram 1446H: 11.57 a.m

MALAGASY GENETIC ANCESTRY

By : Rebenjamina Francis
Melanesian Austronesian/Malayo-Polynesian Solidarity
20 June 2024

Malagasy Genetic Ancestry Comes from an Historical Malay Trading Post in Southeast Borneo
Nicolas Brucato,†,1 Pradiptajati Kusuma,†,1,2 Murray P. Cox,3 Denis Pierron,1 Gludhug A. Purnomo,2 Alexander Adelaar,4 Toomas Kivisild,5,6 Thierry Letellier,1 Herawati Sudoyo,2,7 and Franc¸ois-Xavier Ricaut*,1
1 Evolutionary Medicine Group, Laboratoire d’Anthropologie Mole´culaire et Imagerie de Synthe`se UMR 5288 CNRS, Universite´ Toulouse III, Universite´ de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
2 Genome Diversity and Diseases Laboratory, Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, Jakarta, Indonesia
3 Statistics and Bioinformatics Group, Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
4 Asia Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
5 Department of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
6 Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia
7 Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
† These authors contributed equally to this work.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: francois-xavier.ricaut@univ-tlse3.fr. Associate editor: Connie Mulligan

Abstract
Malagasy genetic diversity results from an exceptional protoglobalization process that took place over a thousand years ago across the Indian Ocean. Previous efforts to locate the Asian origin of Malagasy highlighted Borneo broadly as a potential source, but so far no firm source populations were identified. 
Here, we have generated genome-wide data from two Southeast Borneo populations, the Banjar and the Ngaju, together with published data from populations across the Indian Ocean region. We find strong support for an origin of the Asian ancestry of Malagasy among the Banjar. This group emerged from the long-standing presence of a Malay Empire trading post in Southeast Borneo, which favored admixture between the Malay and an autochthonous Borneo group, the Ma’anyan. Reconciling genetic, historical, and linguistic data, we show that the Banjar, in Malay-led voyages, were the most probable Asian source among the analyzed groups in the founding of the Malagasy gene pool.
Key words: Madagascar, Austronesian, Borneo, Banjar, genome-wide

The Malagasy Asian Ancestry Derives from Southeast Borneo To identify the most probable Asian parental groups of the Malagasy, we adopted a two-stage approach: first, we identified the most likely proxy populations using a data set with wide geographical coverage but relatively low density of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), then followed by a higher density SNP data set that gives increased statistical power. This allows us to reconstruct the admixture processes that led to the emergence of modern Malagasy. 
The admixture profile of our data set (2,183 individuals from 61 populations genotyped for 40,272 SNPs; supplemen tary figs. S2 and S3, Supplementary Material online), based on ADMIXTURE analyses (Alexander et al. 2009), shows that the Malagasy genetic diversity is best described as a mixture of 68% African genomic components and 32% Asian components, corresponding well with the results of previous studies (Capredon et al. 2013; Pierron et al. 2014). While the African ancestry component in Malagasy appears to be broadly similar to that still present today in South African Bantu, the Asian ancestry presents a more complex pattern. This complexity is the key reason why previous studies have been unable to point firmly to a unique Asian source, making any subsequent anthropological inferences debatable (Pierron et al. 2014). 
This problem arose with a study of the Ma’anyan population of Borneo, whose language has long been identified as the closest to the Malagasy language (Dahl 1951), but who surprisingly exhibit no clear genetic connection to Malagasy (Kusuma et al. 2016). 
Instead, the higher genetic complexity of the Asian ancestry component in Malagasy likely reflects the fact that more than a single source population was involved in its formation. Affinities to the Malagasy Asian components are found at high frequency across several Island Southeast Asian groups, but notably in Malay, a dominant group of ancient seafaring traders (first millennium CE), and admixed groups from Borneo (i.e., Banjar, Ngaju, South Kalimantan Dayak, Lebbo, Murut, Dusun, and Bidayuh; supplementary fig. S2, Supplementary Material online). 
The connection between Malagasy, and the Borneo and Malay populations, is supported by f3-statistics (z-scores<2; supplementary ta ble S2, Supplementary Material online) (Patterson et al. 2012) and TreeMix analyses (35% of Malay/Borneo gene flow to Malagasy; supplementary fig. S4, Supplementary Material online) (Pickrell and Pritchard 2012). 
However, to more specifically identify the Asian ancestry of the Malagasy genome, we performed a Local Ancestry analysis with PCAdmix (Brisbin et al. 2012) using two proxy parental meta-populations comprising 100 individuals with African ancestry (randomly selected from Yoruba, South African Bantu, Kenyan Luhya, and Somali groups) and Asian ancestry (randomly selected from Chinese, Philippine Igorot, Bornean Ma’anyan, and Malay groups). Masking the haplotypes inferred to derive from Africa, we performed an ancestry-specific Principal Components Analysis (PCA) (Patterson et al. 2006) and TreeMix analysis (Pickrell and Pritchard 2012). Both show that the Asian genomic components of Malagasy cluster tightly with Southeast Borneo groups (Banjar, South Kalimantan Dayak, Ngaju, and Ma’anyan) (1,664 SNPs; fig. 1A and supplementary fig. S5, Supplementary Material online). This connection is supported by the highest f 3-statistics and the lowest FST genetic distances also being observed between Asian ancestry of the Malagasy and these same Southeast Borneo groups (f3> 0. 12; FST<0.02; fig. 1B; supplementary tables S3 and S4, Supplementary Material online). To explore this connection in more detail, we turned to the high density SNP data set (551 individuals from 24 populations genotyped for 374,189 SNPs; supplementary table S1, Supplementary Material online). This allows more statistically powerful analyses based on haplotypes. 
We confirmed the earlier result that Malagasy have the highest values of cumulative shared identity-by-descent fragments with Southeast Borneo populations (fig. 1C; supplementary fig. S6, Supplementary Material online). To expand on this, however, we inferred the population sources of the Malagasy, their relative ratios and the dates of potential admixture events with GLOBETROTTER (Hellenthal et al. 2014), defining each population in our data set as a donor/ surrogate group and the Malagasy as the recipient, using the haplotype “painting” data obtained with Chromopainter (Lawson et al. 2012). 
The best fit outcome for the Malagasy was obtained under a model of a single admixture event between two sources: the Banjar representing 37% of modern Malagasy and the South African Bantu population representing the other 63% (r 2 ¼0.99, P < 0.01; fig. 2 and supplementary table S5, Supplementary Material online). The admixture event was dated to 675 years BP (95% CI: 625–725 years BP, supplementary table S5, Supplementary Material online), which is similar to the dates of admixture estimated by ALDER (550–750 years BP) using Banjar population in combination with the South African Bantu (sup plementary table S6, Supplementary Material online) (Loh et al. 2013). 
When each Malagasy ethnic group is analyzed separately, similar parental populations, admixture proportions, and dates are obtained with the noticeable older estimated dates toward the east coast of Madagascar (supplementary table S5, Supplementary Material online). Crucially, these dates of genetic admixture, in agreement with a previous study (Pierron et al. 2014), reflect the midpoint or end of noticeable admixture between groups of Asian and African ancestry in Madagascar, rather than the start of this contact. 
Therefore, they could correspond to the end of the period of the main Austronesian presence in Madagascar that started around the first millennium CE (Dahl 1951, 1991; Dewar and Wright 1993; Adelaar 1995; Cox et al. 2012; Adelaar forthcoming). On the other hand, around 1100–700 years BP, climatic changes in the South of Genetic Ancestry of the Malagasy in Southeast Borneo . doi:10.1093/molbev/msw117 MBE 2397.

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11 July 2024 : 5 Muharram 1446H: 11.37 a.m