Resource : Reimondo Oo
The Baba-Nyonya, also known as the Peranakan Chinese community, is a distinctive ethnic group in Malaysia that harmoniously blends three cultures - Chinese, Malay, and Western.
The rich heritage of the Baba-Nyonya dates back approximately 600 years to the 15th century. During this period, Chinese traders, mainly from Fujian province in southeastern China, began settling in Malacca and marrying or cohabiting with local women, including Malays, Javanese, Bataks from Sumatra, and Balinese slaves.
This cultural assimilation birthed the core Peranakan identity - a unique fusion of Chinese traditions and Malay influences.
With the expansion of British rule in Malaya, the Baba-Nyonya community gradually adopted elements of Western culture. As described by Lee Liang Hye (Malaya Tribune, July 1, 1949), the Babas are often referred to as “men of three worlds” - their way of life being a curious yet harmonious blend of Chinese, Malay, and Western customs.
Their professed loyalty to the colonial British authorities earned them nicknames such as the “King’s Chinese” and the “Queen’s Chinese”.
‘Peranakan Chinese’ v ‘Straits Chinese’
Following the establishment of the Straits Settlements as a Crown Colony in 1826, the Baba Chinese in Malacca, Singapore, and Penang became known as the “Straits Chinese”.
Their community leaders sought to distinguish themselves from the China-born immigrants, known as “sinkehs” (newcomers), who were transient “birds of passage” with primary loyalties to China.
However, it is important to distinguish between the terms “Peranakan Chinese” and “Straits Chinese”. While all Peranakan Chinese are Straits-born Chinese, not all Straits-born Chinese are Peranakan.
The Peranakan Chinese are marked by strong Malay influences in their cuisine, attire, and cultural practices, whereas non-Peranakan Straits-born Chinese generally retained more traditional Chinese customs.
Additionally, the Peranakan Chinese traditionally spoke Baba Malay, a creole language blending Malay and Hokkien, while other Straits-born Chinese primarily spoke Hokkien or other Chinese dialects.
These changes in language use and cultural practices among the Peranakan Chinese were, unfortunately, often a source of criticism and ridicule among some China-born immigrants who viewed the former as not being “pure” Chinese.
Due to their limited ability to speak Chinese fluently and perceived of dilution in their Chinese identity, the Babas were disparagingly referred to by segments of China-born immigrants as “chap it tiam pua” (half-past eleven), “luck tiam pua” (half-past six), or in Malay “Orang Cina Bukan Cina” (a Chinese, yet not a Chinese) and “Cina Celup” (Imitation Chinese).
Such stereotypes were not entirely one-way. On their part, the English-educated Babas often viewed China-born immigrants as “uncouth peasants”.
Growth of Baba-Nyonya community
According to Craig A Lockard in his article, “The Sea Common to All” (2010), the Chinese population in Malacca - mainly Hokkien, along with some Cantonese - during the 1400s possibly numbered several hundred permanent or seasonal residents.
These merchants traded silk, fine porcelain, jewellery, perfumes, and cooking utensils for local commodities like spices, pepper, opium, and jungle products.
During Portuguese rule in Malacca (1511–1641), a Kampung Cina (Chinese Village) emerged along the Malacca River. According to Reverend Father R Cardon in his article “Portuguese Malacca” (1934), the first Kapitan Cina was Tay Kie Ki (Tin Kap), a wealthy Fujian-born Hokkien merchant.
Following the Dutch conquest of Malacca in 1641, there were 300-400 Chinese shopkeepers, craftspersons and farmers, with no distinction between “pure” Chinese and Baba Chinese. The first Kapitan Cina under Dutch rule was Li Jun Chang (Li Kap).
According to Dutch Governor Balthasar Bort in his 1678 report, there were 852 Chinese living outside the fortress in Malacca, with an additional 40 living within its walls. By 1750, the Malaccan Chinese population had increased to 2,161.
Among the 852 recorded earlier, the women were predominantly Batak and Balinese slaves, along with some Malays.
As stated by Victor Purcell in his article “Chinese Settlement in Malacca” (1947), the Chinese settlers during Portuguese and Dutch rule of Malacca were exclusively males.
After the founding of Penang (1786) and Singapore (1819) as British ports, many Malacca Babas migrated, thriving as merchants, brokers, and professionals. Malacca’s Chinese population rose to 4,797 by 1829 but dropped to 4,102 in 1836 due to migration to Singapore and Penang.
For the record, the first Singapore Babas came from Malacca. GW Earl (1837) described them as “remarkably clean and well-dressed” and “speak English tolerably well.”
Tan Tock Seng, a Malacca-born Babas who migrated to Singapore, became one of its most prominent figures. An enterprising entrepreneur and a wealthy landowner, he was the first Asian appointed Justice of the Peace and is best remembered for founding Singapore’s first hospital for poor Chinese (presently Tan Tock Seng Hospital).
The Malacca and Singapore Babas, practically alike in all respects, can be considered as a common community. The Malacca Babas speak Malay with Hokkien vocabulary. On the other hand, the Penang Babas largely converse in Hokkien with some Malay words.
Currently, the Babas in Penang hardly exist; they have generally assimilated with the larger Penang Chinese community.
In Malacca, affluent Peranakan families traditionally resided along Heeren Street (now Jalan Tun Tan Cheng Lock) and Jonker Street (now Jalan Hang Jebat). Over time, many have moved away from these historic areas. Another notable concentration of Peranakan Chinese was in Bukit Rambai.
Despite their historical significance, the Peranakan Chinese population is shrinking due to assimilation into mainstream Chinese culture. Many younger generations no longer speak Baba Malay or observe traditional Peranakan customs, further accelerating the erosion of their cultural distinctiveness.
Religion
Most Baba-Nyonya practised a syncretic form of religion, combining elements of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism.
Although the community adopted Malay cultural practices, they did not embrace Islam. Some converted to Christianity - mainly Anglicanism or Catholicism - during British rule. Today, most of the Singaporean Babas are Christians.
Cuisine
Peranakan or Nyonya cuisine is a rich blend of Chinese and Malay culinary traditions, with Indian and Thai influences.
Signature dishes include laksa nyonya (a spicy noodle soup with coconut milk and tamarind), ayam buah keluak (chicken cooked with black nuts), otak-otak (spiced fish paste wrapped in banana leaves), and kueh lapis (layered steamed cake made from rice flour and coconut milk).
Traditionally, the Baba-Nyonya ate with their hands, similar to the Malays.
Traditional attire and dress
The traditional attire of the Baba-Nyonya reflects their fusion of Chinese and Malay influences. The famed traditional Nyonya attire is the “kebaya Nyonya”, a delicate, embroidered blouse fastened with brooches (kerongsang) consisting of three clasps, paired with a batik sarong.
The traditional Nyonyas made extensive use of lace in the kebaya and wore various accessories, including hairpins and bracelets. Wealthy Nyonyas wore elaborate jewellery. The hair is tied in a bun (sanggul) at the back of the head, held together by gold or silver hairpins. The Nyonyas wore pretty colourful beaded slippers (kasut manek) or leather shoes. Unlike the women in China, Nyonyas did not bind their feet.
Babas wore the “Baju Lok Chuan” (Mandarin-style jacket), a hybrid of Chinese and Malay attire for formal occasions. Over time, many gradually adopted Western suits, short hairstyles, and habits like cigar smoking and horse-drawn carriage travel.
Performing arts
The Peranakan Chinese are renowned for their rich and vibrant performing arts traditions, which include “dondang sayang” - romantic ballads sung as a lyrical exchange between male and female performers, accompanied by traditional Malay folk music.
Other cultural expressions include wayang Peranakan (Peranakan opera or theatrical performances) and traditional dances that seamlessly blend Malay and Chinese influences.
Notable dondang sayang performers from the Peranakan Chinese community include the late Chia Kim Teck, popularly known as Baba Kim Teck, and the late Nyonya Tan Abdullah.
The Baba-Nyonya also traditionally had a strong liking for Malay music “keroncong”, which is believed to have Portuguese and Indonesian origins. In later generations, Western music and English films gained popularity among the community.
Language
The Peranakan language, known as “Baba Malay”, is a creole that blends Malay grammar with Chinese vocabulary, particularly from the Hokkien dialect. It developed as a practical means of communication between Peranakan families and the wider Malay-speaking community.
Until the early twentieth century, Baba Malay served as a prominent language of business in the Straits Settlements.
Distinctive features of Baba Malay include the use of the Hokkien word “gua” (I) in place of the Malay word “saya”, and the frequent use of the particle “punya”, as in “gua punya bapak” instead of the standard Malay “bapa saya.”
Some Malay words were also modified - “mengerti” became “reti,” and “zaman dahulu” became “jeman dulu”. In addition, the pronunciation of many words was altered; for example, “banyak” became “manyak”, and “ambil” became “ambek” or “amek”.
Interestingly, some Baba Malay loanwords that have become part of the Malay language are “cat” (paint), “dacing” (weighing rod), and “loceng” (bell).
However, with increasing assimilation into mainstream Chinese culture, the use of Baba Malay has declined. English has become the dominant language among English-educated Babas and Nyonyas.
Customs and traditions
Baba-Nyonya customs blend Chinese and Malay practices. Their elaborate 12-day wedding ceremonies incorporate Chinese tea ceremonies and Malay wedding traditions.
Wedding presents included “belanja kahwin” (wedding expenses), kain songket (embroidered sarong), and “pinang mas” (golden betel nuts).
Chinese New Year is celebrated with open houses, traditional foods, and lion dances. The Peranakan Chinese also practise ancestor worship: a strong tradition of paying respect to deceased ancestors, with altars in homes.
The community sustained itself through intermarriage, with Babas permitted to marry Malay women. However, Nyonyas were traditionally allowed to marry only Babas or the “most promising” among the newly arrived Chinese settlers.
Contributions of Malaccan Peranakan Chinese
Throughout different colonial administrations, the Peranakan Chinese played crucial roles in commerce, governance, and society.
During the Portuguese occupation of Malacca (1511-1641), they acted as intermediaries in trade, benefiting from their multilingual abilities in the spice trade, shipbuilding, and craftspersonship.
Under the Dutch administration (1641-1824), apart from 1795-1818 when the British temporarily took control of Malacca due to the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the Peranakan Chinese maintained their influence in trade and commerce. Many became merchants, tax farmers, and moneylenders.
The Dutch East India Company relied on the Peranakan Chinese for economic activities, particularly in the tin mining sector. Despite their wealth, the Peranakan Chinese were subject to stringent Dutch regulations, limiting their political power.
As aptly observed by Maurice Freedman (1965), a respected authority on the Chinese in Southeast Asia, the Babas wielded considerable economic and social clout throughout the nineteenth century.
During British rule in Malaya, the Babas, owing to their fluency in English and close ties with Western merchants and British authorities, held a dominant position within Malayan Chinese society.
The Peranakan Chinese thrived economically in sectors such as banking, property investment, and plantations. They played a leading role in the tin and rubber trade until the early decades of the twentieth century.
Given their prominence and influence, it is unsurprising that many Babas served as municipal council members and justices of the peace.
The Babas played a pivotal role in the development of commercial agriculture in Malaya. For example, See Boon Tiong pioneered tapioca cultivation in Linggi, Negeri Sembilan, while Chee Yam Chuan (a fifth-generation Chee who was born in Malacca in 1819) ventured into nutmeg planting in both Malacca and Singapore.
Chee Yam Chuan
He later expanded his interests into tin mining and real estate, eventually becoming a financier to Malay chiefs, including Raja Jumaat (chief of Lukut 1846-64) and his brother Raja Abdullah, to open up mines in Klang.
A particularly notable figure was Tan Chay Yan, the grandson of Tan Tock Seng, whose ancestor first settled in Malacca around 1750.
In 1895, he became the first person in Malaya to establish a rubber plantation estate, spanning about 40 acres, at Bukit Lintang, Malacca. In 1898, he opened up a much larger rubber estate (about 3,000 acres) at Bukit Asahan, Malacca. In recognition of his pioneering efforts, a road in Malacca is named after him.
Tan Chay Yan
Other prominent Malacca Baba rubber planters were Chan Kang Swi, Chee Swee Cheng (who became the first chairperson of the Overseas Chinese Banking Corporation), Ee Kong Guan, and Lee Keng Hee.
A little-known fact is that during the Japanese invasion of Singapore in February 1942, the Malacca-based B Company of the 4th Battalion, Straits Settlements Volunteer Force (SSVF), composed predominantly of Chinese volunteers (mostly Babas), played a significant role in the defence of the city. The SSVF was a militia unit formed to defend British territories, including Malaya and Singapore.
Captain Cho Seow Lim, a notable figure within this unit, was killed in action on Feb 13, 1942, at the age of 44. His valour and contributions are commemorated in the Singapore Memorial’s list of soldiers who fought and lost their lives in the defence of the nation.
Additionally, Company Quartermaster Sergeant Tan Kim Tee was executed on Feb 28, 1942, alongside 88 other Chinese (many of whom were Babas) and Malay volunteers. These sacrifices underscore the bravery and commitment of the Malacca Chinese volunteers, including Babas, during this tumultuous period.
Peranakan Chinese associations
The Peranakan Chinese established several organisations to safeguard their interests as “sons of the soil” and to preserve and promote their rich cultural heritage.
The first organisation was the Straits Chinese British Association (SCBA), founded on Aug 17, 1900, in Singapore by four influential English-speaking Peranakan leaders: Tan Jiak Kim, Lim Boon Keng, Song Ong Siang, and Seah Liang Seah. Its first president was Tan Jiak Kim, with Song Ong Siang as the honorary secretary.
The main aims of the SCBA, as outlined by KG Tregonning - an authority on Malaysian history - were “to encourage and maintain the loyalty of its members as subjects of the Queen, to promote the general welfare of the Chinese British subjects, and in particular to encourage both higher and technical education.”
Today, the association is known as The Peranakan Association Singapore, dedicated to promoting and preserving Peranakan culture.
In October 1900, a branch of the SCBA was established in Malacca, with Lee Keng Liat serving as its first president and Goh Lye Quee as the honorary secretary. The branch collapsed in 1904 due to a lack of support.
However, in 1915, Tan Cheng Lock successfully revived the association and was duly elected president. Today, it is known as Persatuan Peranakan Cina Melaka.
Tan Cheng Lock
In 1920, the Penang branch of the SCBA was established, with Lim Eu Toh serving as its first president. It is now known as Persatuan Peranakan Cina Pulau Pinang.
The Peranakan Baba Nyonya Association of Kuala Lumpur and Selangor was formed on July 28, 2008, with the primary aim of promoting and preserving the unique Peranakan Chinese heritage. Its founding president is Dr Lee Su Kim, a sixth-generation Nyonya born in Kuala Lumpur.
Another notable organisation is the Persatuan Peranakan Baba Nyonya Malaysia (Peranakan Baba Nyonya Association of Malaysia), which is currently led by its president, Ronald Gan.
Prominent Malacca Peranakan Chinese
The Malacca Peranakan Chinese community has produced several prominent figures who have made significant contributions to nation-building.
Among the most outstanding leaders the community has produced is the late Tan Cheng Lock, a distinguished public figure and political leader.
Born in Malacca in 1883, he holds the distinction of being the first president of MCA, which was founded on Feb 27, 1949. Tan played a pivotal role in championing Malayan independence and safeguarding the rights of the Chinese community.
His son, Tan Siew Sin, continued his father’s distinguished legacy of leadership of the Chinese community and public service by serving with distinction as MCA president and as Malaysia’s first finance minister from 1959 to 1974.
Tan Siew Sin
He was instrumental in formulating the country’s fiscal and economic policies during its critical formative years.
Another notable Malacca Baba was Tan Kim Seng, reputed to be one of the wealthiest men in both Malacca and Singapore. Born in Malacca on Nov 18, 1806, he moved to Singapore in the 1820s, where he amassed a fortune as a trader and property owner.
Tan Kim Seng
Despite his success abroad, Tan remained deeply connected to his roots in Malacca. In 1847, he became the “Teng Choo” (president of the temple board) of the Cheng Hoon Teng Temple in Malacca, thereby assuming a leadership role within the local Chinese community.
Among his many contributions, he built a bridge across the Malacca River in 1862. True to his devotion to his homeland, he was buried in Malacca upon his death.
The Tan Kim Seng bridge
Other distinguished Malacca Babas include Goh Kay Seng, who was the first speaker of the Malacca state assembly, and Ee Yew Kim, a lawyer who served as the acting resident commissioner of Malacca.
In the field of sports, Robert Choe stands out as a world-class football forward renowned for his exceptional dribbling skills and powerful strikes.
Alongside Abdul Ghani Minhat, Choe played a key role in elevating Malaysia as an Asian football power during the 1960s. Both men rejected offers to join Tottenham Hotspur, West Ham, and Cardiff City.
Choe retired from international football in 1966 after captaining the national team at the Asian Games in Bangkok.
Challenges faced by Peranakan community
The Baba-Nyonya community faces several challenges.
First is the gradual decline in the use of their unique language and the preservation of culture since the 1930s. Younger generations among the community are increasingly adopting English and Mandarin over Baba Malay.
Second, the community risks losing its cultural identity due to the process of intermarriage and modern influences.
Third are the heritage conservation issues, with the Peranakan heritage sites and artifacts at risk of neglect or commercialisation.
Fourth, despite centuries of assimilation and cultural contributions, the Peranakan Chinese have not been granted bumiputera status, limiting access to certain privileges.
The case for bumiputera status
Since 2014, Ronald Gan - president of the Peranakan Baba Nyonya Association of Malaysia - has been at the forefront of the campaign to secure bumiputera status for the Peranakan Chinese of Malacca.
He argues that the community’s centuries-old heritage and deep assimilation into Malay culture - through language, customs, attire, and daily practices - strongly justify such recognition.
Gan points out that during both the Dutch and British colonial periods, the Peranakan Chinese were recognised as indigenous inhabitants. This status was reflected in the granting of land deeds similar to those awarded to the Malays - a historical precedent that underscores their longstanding presence and integration.
The movement has drawn support from prominent figures, including former tourism, arts and culture minister Nazri Aziz. In 2017, he affirmed the community’s right to be recognised as bumiputera, citing their more than 500-year presence in the Malay Archipelago as a compelling basis.
There is clear merit to this quest. The Peranakan Chinese have lived in Malaysia for centuries, actively embracing and enriching Malay cultural traditions.
A notable example is Chee Soo Chan - Chee Yam Chuan’s earliest ancestor in Malacca - who died in 1752 and is buried in Bukit Cina, a powerful symbol of the community’s enduring historical roots in the city.
The Chee family ancestral hall in Malacca
Similarly, Tan Kim Seng’s grandfather, Tan Sin Liew, arrived in Malacca in 1757 and established the trading company Hong Hin.
Around 1765, Tan Cheng Lock’s great-great-grandfather, Tan Hay Kwan, also migrated from Fujian to Malacca.
Despite these deep-rooted ties to the country, the Baba-Nyonya community continues to be excluded from the privileges granted to Malays and other indigenous groups.
As rightly observed by Margaret Sarkissian, a leading authority on the Portuguese Eurasian and Baba-Nyonya communities, the Peranakan Chinese predates more recent Indonesian immigrants who are automatically granted bumiputera status.
In the same vein, Png Poh-seng, in his 1969 article “The Straits Chinese in Singapore”, emphasises that the Baba Chinese are “local citizens with no second homeland.”
A little-known fact is that several Babas in Malacca were accepted as Umno members. Notably, in 1963, four Babas registered with the Umno Bukit Rambai branch, including Koh Kim Bok, a well-respected community leader (The Straits Times, April 1, 1993).
It is hoped that the vision expressed by the late Khir Johari, former Malaysian education minister, that “one day all Malaysians will become bumiputeras” will eventually be realised (The Straits Budget, Aug 28, 1968).
This vision holds the promise of a truly inclusive and unified nation where every citizen, regardless of heritage, is equally recognised and valued.
The way forward
To ensure the survival of Peranakan heritage, proactive and sustained efforts are essential.
Both the community’s own initiatives as well as government support should continue to focus on promoting this unique cultural legacy through museums, cultural festivals, and educational programmes that highlight its historical significance.
Peranakan Chinese associations, in particular, should take the lead in inspiring younger generations to embrace and preserve traditional arts, crafts, and culinary practices, thereby keeping their vibrant heritage alive for future Malaysians.
In addition, as a historian, I would urge that the invaluable contributions of the Baba-Nyonya community to nation-building be duly recognised and incorporated into school history textbooks.
Conclusion
The Baba-Nyonya community is a living testament to the power of cultural fusion, resilience, and identity as well as economic enterprise and public service. Their remarkable ability to bridge ethnic and cultural divides has enriched Malaysia’s multicultural heritage in profound ways.
If we are to honour their extraordinary contributions and sacrifices, we must ensure that their legacy is not only preserved but celebrated.
By embracing their story, reviving their language, and recognising their rightful place in our national narrative, we keep alive not just the memory of a vibrant community but also the soul of a nation shaped by unity in diversity.
RANJIT SINGH MALHI is an independent historian who has written 19 books on Malaysian, Asian and world history. He is highly committed to writing an inclusive and truthful history of Malaysia based upon authoritative sources.
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1/4/2025 @ 2 Syawal 1446H : 8.45 p.m
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